EnvRep 90 Algal proliferation on Balavu Reef%2C Ovalau Island :: The University of the South Pacific Library

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EnvRep 90 Algal proliferation on Balavu Reef%2C Ovalau Island

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EnvRep 90 Algal proliferation on Balavu Reef%2C Ovalau Island

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INSTITUTE OF APPLIED SCIENCES

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC

Ae lgal Prolif ration Balavu Reef,Qyalau_ IsJand - Causes,

Consequences and Recommendations

IAS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES REPORT NUMBER: 90

Lovell, Ed and Tamata, Bale R

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iNSTITUTE OF APPLIED SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC

ALGAL PROFLlFERATICJN ON

BALAVU REEF, OVALAU ISLAND

CAUSES, CONSEQUENSES

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

ENVIRONMENT REPORT No. 90

ily

Ed Lovell

nnd

Bale R. Tan1ata

November, 1996

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ALGAL PROLIFERATION ON

BALAVU REEF, OVALAU ISLAND

CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This '.eport is the res ult of a request by <lid donor Kevin Dawes of AUSAID and the

engineerin\\J contractor, John C<m1pbell of Sinclair Kninhr Mertz, 10 provide

additional inforrnation to the baseline assessrTlent carried out as part of the

environn1e11tnl in1pact asses:;rnerlt for 1he second installation of the pipelinr� for the

Pacific Fishing Co mpany {PAFCOl(Tarnata and Lovell, 1995). Ti1 is request is the

result of a cirarnaric change in the nature of a coral reef near the site of the outfall

of the first pipeline where algae is now observed 'tO extensively cover t1·1e norihern

end of Balavu Reef, offshore frorn Levuh1, Ovnlau Islam! IF'Ll· 11.

A litf:Jrature revievi! was undBrtaken "lo provid e insigtH into the nalure ot the

alteration of t11e reefs biolo9ical composition. The sites were revisited briefly on

July 11th ancl 12th 1996, just as the last clamps were being put in place on the

reconstructe'd µi11eline lJy 1he clivers of Dive Operators (Fiji) Lttl. During this visit.

an attempt was mar.le to interview some of tl1e PAFCO Man a,i ement staff and

other personnel on site 1ncludinq tl1e rnpresentntive of the sub-coniractor (JS Hill)

on site, Mr. l sli ri Prasad.

Tl1e phenomenon i11volves a proliferation o'f tl1e macro-algae, Sargassum sp., which

now overwhc;lm111gly rlornim1tes tl1 e ll�ef flat . The c<111se <1 nd consequences ol 1l1is

change is the subjec t of this paper, Examples from Fiji and elsewhere are cited to

support the observations and conclusions. Thougt1 pcrt1aps not yet manifested,

the consequences of both waste water conrnrninat10 11 anli l11e risk of ciriuatera

resulting from the new macro-algal environment are discussed . The cause of tl1is

algal proliferation 1s i111porta111 TO define, parr1cularly if it effects other reefs will

cause concern nrnonf1 t/1ose pe opl e vvlio use tliese rP. e fs CTS a s ub sisten c e or

artisc1nal fishery.

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--- ·-

----

- ·-

I"igure l: Chai l of Lcvuka llarl;our shuwi11g lhc Iucalioo of the

cmoon1c1iclornriin1igg'

sites (nu111bcrcd 1-6) ·c.slal!Jishcd during lhc

lhc second pipeline (Tamale and Bak, 1995).

baseline slud}'

l�ach silc bas

a cluster of 3. quadrals lu bt used lo assess t11c dfccl of rl1c pipe a11d

effluent (n1l.i11tc!! fi1,,,, J(i!'dd .'-t iJyJJ"' - Ji win f,Jr.,•J• r�dfit:).

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1. 1 PREVIOUS BASELINE STUDY

Highl"ights from the report BASELINE SURVEY AND WATER QUALITY FOR THE

LA YING OF A WASTE WATER OUTFALL AT P.AFCO {Tarrnmr HncJ Low;li 1995)

provide a sun1rnary of the iri1t. ia! observfltions.

"Sun1111:1n;-;i11.:; lh1.: ),!l.:'1!::1: .d ,1h:-l·n ati1111� :ind tJ1..·. 11:1turc- 11f t11r 1111u1it11rin.:; qo:1di:1b, the ..;f1i.ly �ik·,

rt:prL'�cnl :l .:;11od de;d ,J! \\';111ahilil_\\. ·r1i1� vari:ihility j, i.·xpcvtL·d dl11:.' {n th..: Ji\\'cr,.;.� phy:-.i(.:al

\\\\hi rv..;uli-: in thv n:11\\1ral z(ln:l1i<l!l tin th..·. r·,·..·. L Th,; 11L'l"llflo.:!l1.'t.: nt <.:)dn1h: Kina

pr...·..;1.:nkd a111:lht·r 1;1d11r \\\\'hi, h .1ft.;-,;kd th,; ,i;ll·;d 1\\:L·I ._·n\\1ron1ni.:nl.

\\\\'h:il 1:-> un1i-.11:1I l" lhc .:111Hr•L'-I b1.•!\\\\'<.�L'il !b<.: \\l.\\1) 1'<-'vl'-. uu cllh.:1 !-'id�1 nt No1 Tun1han i'.:hatHl<.·d bC\\\\\\t:(:n

H:davu ;rnd J .d.::tlc":i f{,·1.:h. ·1 hl· dian.:,•-.: \\\\lii... \\1 11:\\1' 11..:1..urrnl ....inl .... thC" pr.·v1r,u-.: n111ni1ori11!:! r-.;riod •Hl

nnrth B:d;n'U Rt•c•I h;1..., h<"C"ll dr:1n1;1lic. ll 1�; lu\\'._:fo;;d \\\\'ith .)'01xr11·s11111. 1nl<.."fUdall.1·. . \\\\1th '-"llh:-:L111t1nl l"llf.d

dl.a.' lh u;i th..: llljh nf 1]11· 1.1•1;i1 h,,1111\\Ht·.-. ..:or k11<1lh. !11 <.:u11l1:1��1 tho.: ;._·h.\\nJld and lhc· :icl.1:1<:'-'"lll 1nk·rl1d;tl r ...·d

•!1"�:1 on l.1.·l-.<1kf..;1 l<ee"I at� <.:h:tliil"t.:li-...:d hy a h1xu1iant ,_.,,ral ;1�:>.•n1hl:Lgc 1111 ti\\,_. (l'Jl u1 rh<: ..o:. r•d knull:-.

and anJu1HI 1!11· lrin��1: pf th<: 1\\·l.'I. 11.11 Thv1\\' i-. ;il..;1, dt"n-.:l· pn.Jif1:1:1!1un u( O.:llf:d un 11i�.- n.:1�r tla! ,in

L..:k<d.:"a 1�·�t. Unf111lu11:1k·ly, t!ic· 11al11tc ,,f \\]J,· ,·u1al hc·111� al1111i..;t \\\\]hilly dnnunakd h:- th.:> �1.;:11u-. .

.oltro1iurl1, i.., �e1J<·rall) :-.cn-.iH\\'� lt• t:'ll\\'Jr11n1111..· nl:d �·han.�'-"'·

Th,_, difterC"lll"�· in 1h�· n.1\\l1!"� nl !hi:: l\\vo fi.:,·b 111.iy \\\\'�II h,_• the !\\:'.-;ult .if the.· in.1\\1al ..:ftlu..·nl HU\\IJ,1\\V frPlll

!he: prc:;\\'i(1u.-. PAI-("() pip�·lni..'. It i.-. 11111:-.1 pri1h�1hk. tl1;111h1: 1.·Jllt11:r1L \\\\hi\\'h i" hi�h in 1111tri1..·n1..... ha"

:-.tiinllh1h.'d lh...·. _;!l'•l\\\\"\\\\l nf th.: Sor.�:<1.\\11111; \\\\·hi... h. t)ll(t< '-'"- 1.1h\\i�J1,:d. prnlifl'rat<.'ll. _-..,·,.11go-..•;11u, '1._ nlkn

ahund:1n1 on tht." inti:r t ii.l:d f, �1c-,Jiu1:: .it \\'illagl'..: du� to th\\.l ground h:tll·i runoff \\"t1!1\\·�y1- 11g 11111ni:nt:- fr,1111

'><.:pti...· �_v:-.ll·1n:-. 1111\\, 1lw 1n;1rin.-.· <.:n\\'in111111�·11r_ 1\\ pr\\il11:.:r:1ti(111 \\lf thi·.- al�:i'"' d11..: l\\J :-;C"\\\\·.1�<.:· ;u1d 1•th..,. 1

\\va-;k· \\\\·ak·r run11ff h.i-; hi:l·n llh..,en1·d <H \\1:1t.11n<11H1;1 ]�Ian.I (0!:h.p1;-;11na. /1)9.'i in pr�·p) ;ind ;ii

B-.:;1..:.ho..:\\1n1h,.·:· \\•.\\;ind l p.p,1di.: .11hl Ry;1n. I ll�7}. D�·\\;11\\..:d ._.-.; r··rnn..·n\\a\\ '11111. lll \\1 \\ud I 1,.( 1r;1\\.... \\.\\<."I� >;.,qi, ,,,_·J

to \\";Jl'i:1U(1n Ill the.· c_1p,·.111d di11J11,;not -.1·\\\\:1�,-. 1�·\\t_'.1!<-d .i prullt!\\lJJ�"<;"d .._·lf.:d. I IJ,,.. g111nih id .d_;."ai.:.- \\'.,l"

g1i;::;itly 1..!! l h11nl.'l''l at llh· .._,ri.·. n-:c 1't th� �11r:1h. ·c11f;l[ 1111"1rhid1ty and 1n1HLrlJ1) 11ndi;:-f c:,1>.:n1n�n1;1I

;:ond1tit1n' \\\\'l·iv .1pp;ir�·111ly 11111 dii..·,·1ly rel.1k�l IP l'.'-tlhk'nf \\u\\i1.·i1.�·. hut \\\\'�·1..;. lit� 1.._·.-.111L uf <."01llfh.:litinn

\\\\ith tl11· ;1!i;.11.· f<11 -.:p:1l'.'. :1n1! l';,. p.:c·ially li�li1·· 1\\la1-.,1ah.:\\. . !9:::1)

If this i� S('. lhi:n: th� �·ltL>..( 1:-. likely to �Xti=1hl lll lill'- adjal<"!ll IC"�·!. :\\�th.: -.·. lllt1<.:111 1.\\ill h1. it:�'> '">:dim:

than chi.:" 'iL'<!\\\\".1kf, u \\1·. dl fl\\•.JI t1i th-.! �ur!"a1.t�. h_.in� ._arried 1;1pidl� mid tn1 '"'1111-:: -.:11i1:-.1:1111ia) tlisLin�<'.

dt:111.·. nd1n� 1111 1l1�· t1d;1l ,·u1Tt.·11t�. ,ind tl1e c!l><l:- ii( \\\\·111J Jritt. '1"11,· tidal �u11..:nl !1\\iw:-: :'l11111:;ly 111

throu�h th..; pa-;�:I�<: <Ill 11t�· tl(•11d1n.:; t1J..·. I l .!11.\\<I ;111d l\\:t�·r. Jt):'.•J) an;."r 1:..: -;111�i<L' I h• ['J"t"\\':td1n:.' \\\\Jnd d!'itr

II i:-.. hup""d ch,11 th<' di1111ion ._.fl\\·ct \\Vilt p1'<:v�111 .,ud1 L'1)ntan1in•d)t>!l 1>111 thi-.: \\\\'ill r1.'ly nn placing tile

u111l":dl �utlil'l<.:ntl.' Lu J1111n !ho,; :.'.ba1nK·I •:n tli.il 1h�· \\\\'inU tln!t will i..Oll\\'<:) th..: :-.ll1 l.11...:. 1·. ft11wnl 11nlu

H;d;t\\ u Rl·\\:"1 \\\\hich h.i-.: .dlt"ad_\\· h. ·. ;._·11 ;1l"li--o..tr�I (I:l,:.' . .2 ).

Th.•.. l'11/1'>...'ljll<'ll\\:,·s n! 1h1' :1ri.: 1nt11 ·... �l'ri11\\1-., a.., Ibis f1.l. "f 1.-. ;1 :-.uu1·.:v ut f,>t><l ;ind 11,,_•d hy L...·\\ u\\..a ,·illa�\\·.

\\\\'it!t Lh..: all<!nn_g t1I 1h,·. tl.!l\\lft.' cif th•: r.·.. <:f tl;t! \\•I �1!!llLlhi11.:: -..in1il:11 h· B;1b..·11 R<:.:i". ii \\viii hl.!COHJ\\:" h::{..;

pn1du-.·11\\·c. 111 k·n1t.. r,f f·•11d p1<1du�·1-... Judririg !r11111 !he 1n11nh ..·. r:{ 1•f p,·<•pk- 1ihsi.:f"\\1.·c.l .._•r1�:t_go;-d i11 tlii!':i

;11..·t1vi1y d11ri11� !he Jn\\V lid\\· :-unc� (-Hl - :)() pcople), it i� 11:...;ru11-.,il')c !or ;1 ..uh:--1;1/llial l"t)tllrihuti!'n lo

the Yill;t_;!'-" food :-.l1ppt�-. F:iilur,· In Dh:-.�·rv,· t.":tu\\i1111 111 thi.:' :-1tin� (1t lh•· pip..·. Pi" to ha\\·...· ;1 L"nnt111�..·. 1h:v

phin in ph11.·. -.: i! pr,1hk·1n'- d.._"\\'t.·!11p. 1!1<1) r•:-llll 111 llllll/1'-'n"aliPn p.1�111o;;nt<; cir ri:ndi;:-r 1h,! pip�lint:

\\!!la("lc�pt:1hlc-."

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Figure2:

Comparative diagram of the location

of the ex.isring pipeiine and its

proposed outfall with the path

recommended by this report on the

basis of minimisii-ig redeafmage.

Mr-fl.�� C::t:tf"f a.<. ;.JC:\\../

l[.(llLl:A.

-:.. t

�i·;.(;

_ -_

EXJSI"iNG ?rP~;:

','EV,' PU'S..IN"E

?ECOl,-f)-{E.-,,,--DF.D P I ? ~ Pf.Tr. [N T.HJS ~!"O.RT

Effluent Pipeline Location Map fariapteti irom io=tio::; piar.: Sinci.a.i:-'K.U-i?O: Mcr.:.ns ?'.ill �d ,.,,:;s.t..;:_) &.3.i� l:JQ.OCO

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OTl!ER EFfLl'Ei\\T IIAZARDS

:\\s '\\vell as ll1e sti111ulation

pre��nce o( elevat('d levels

t1f

llf

p;.iit-1'g0a..l.plglorrOu\\\\s·lha,ndthenrietroigsenanonadvthcer.slg' ne)\\f\\f't('lCl t

f"ron1 lhe

of coral:-;,

generally. ·rhcir skeli:tnn loose �trcngth. hl'co111es cruinhl y to t!1e touch.

C�ontan1in;1tion by industrial \\\\:l'.;te;.; and to·(1c bloaccuintdation rnay pn.:sL'l1t anoJhi:r

hazard to thL' clil.iposal of Sl'\\\\·�1gc and industrial effluent near an area \\Vhcre rishing

and glean)ng 01.:cur. This 111�1y C<n1:-.c degradation and lhe pni:-.oning ut the artisanal

·iishery. St'af0nd n1ay bec0111c conta111i11ati:>d. s1.vi111r11ers and gleaner:� n1aybe �ub_iect

to bacterial and viral diseases (Westman 1974; !Vliller 1978: Beder 1989).

RECOI\\I� IENIM"l"IO'\\S:

It is rern111111e11ded thal lite outlet to tlte pipe is placed "' far to the south of tlte

channc-1 as is pract\\cablt:: as then:' Sl'l'niS tn ht a \\Uh�tant1�1\\ cliange in the nature of the

reef 11ear ll1e previn11s otill"all t.fit::2).

('.aref11l 111llliitoring. pf the cilec.l.: s or the ernucnt on Lckaleka reef !S eS\\enti;1l.

A contingency plan 111ust be in pla\\;¢ to divert the nn\\\\' of l'rtlui.:-nt if a rrohl-:111

dt.�velop'.) and t1i resitL' tht.� outrall further ay.a., y l'rt.1n1 the ch,1nnel.

·r1ic over!lo\\v fron1 the \\.\\-a�te \\V<ttcr \\\\'t'!i should be lengtl1cncd �ubstanlially. 'file

s�a\\1/ater intake providing \\Vater to 1hc:. cannery is adjacent to the pre�ent ovi:rllP'" and

n1ust. during tinh:'S nf OVl'rfh.nv. taki.-.: in faecal 1natL'rial J'ron1 th.;: '"-'<ISh:: '"�lier. �rhis

eftluent has a l<tr�e cnn1pon1:nt of untreated se\\vage. 'rhis i!-i ci highly 1111�ati\\fal·toJ)'

])ractisl' and 01u.-;t cc;1· se i111111t>cliatcly.

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Figure 3:

Figure l_.cgend

(a,b) Thriving coral assemblages in the back r�ef areas of l3alavu Reef prior to the

pollution which has now inundated the coral (November. 1990).

(c)

The bleached corallt1111 of a massive coral whicl1 has recently died as the reo,ult

of shadiug <md abrasion lly thG alga<; (June, 1995),

(tl,e) The algal covered rL·ef !lat \\Vith the P.�\\FC'(_) cannery in lhe: ha'.k.' ground (June,

1995).

Figure 4:

(a)

;\\erial photo sho\\ving the extent aig<1l cover on the: Balavu Reef !lat lJuly,

1996).

(b)

Aerial photo showing Balavu l'eef and the adjacent Lckalcka Reef. The

sea\\varcl end <.lf Na Tu1nllari channel bet\\veen the re12t\\ is \\Vhere tile second

outfaH \\•.iii\\ be s;ted. l)u\\.! tu

the current structnrt.:". of ihe channel area.

conc�rll ]!) expressed that Lekalek<l ri:er \\Viii h� a\\<.;{) he ar(ec.:tcd by algal

growth and an effect 011 the a1·tisa1ial lishcry (July, 1996).

(c.cl) Coral grnwth on the so11thwest eclge of Lekaki<a r,,er (June, !995).

(e)

Dvspite the presence of tile pipeli11e. ei'tluent still llow into Le\\·ub Harbour.

This frothy liquid waste is likely to co111prise clcani11� Ct>1npnunds (Septetnher,

1992).

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2.0 ll!STOR\\' OF CIL\\N(;FS TO BALA VU REEF

Env1ronn1cnt<il 111onitonng ha\\ hi.:'"-'n com!t1...:ll'i.\\ un thi"l rt:l·f sii:t:l-' 1990 \\VhL'll 1!1� fir:-.t

111011itoring site:-. \\Vere set up and photo�raplls \\Vl?rl� t:c1kcn of th(' r-c'.:'.f llal ;.1nd sh�li\\o\\\\. \\x1ckreef

area. I nspection� \\vere conducted at 6 1nnnt11!y lo yt:'arly peripcls until present, \\1.,ilh th�

e'ccrtion e>f 1994 when no 111onitori11i; \\\\'a,, carried oul. (Creen, Lloyd and l.(1vdl IYlJU:

(jrecn, and l.OVL"n \\�)90: (ireen and Lovell, 1991; (Jrccn and Lo\\�!l. IY92; (jreen and

Lovell, 199:1; Talllata and Lnwll J9lJ5: Tamata and l.o\\'ell 199(1;t.

2. l

"J'he pli(·111111n•11tH1 - ,i\\lgal prolif('l'alin11 011 Balil\\'ll J{epf

Bi�\\;·1.vu Reef �ind 1hc- ;.ul.1acL·nr hHrril'r rt?.._·r. I .1,.'Kaleka l<t·\\·r, lla\\'l.' hL't'll the -;u\\ljcrt <'fa t("t'L·nt

h;;1seline 111onlt(lring pn_)g.ra1n to enable th.:.- .-.:rrcc1:.. nftht prl'sc:nt 1narh1L' outfall tn bt'! as::.:cssL'll

(1°;1111:: and l,o\\'L'li. 199)). ::\\s de�i..:rihl'd in th\\.' ba:-...:l. in'.:' n..·. pnn. iht' :-,ur\\1ey oh:-,l:'rved that

there \\Vas a proliferation of tile 111a1..:ro-alg:1e, predorninantly .)·,r1:1;u_rs11n1 cristqfi1!11rn1 un the

north l:ntl ur Balavu Reef. 'fhe n.c:. f /lat \\\\'a\\ L'overed \\\\'ith an alg;d n1a1 !o the exclu"i1on of

the prc:\\'ion.-.ly do1nina11t organis1n-.:. .-..uL:h ii\\ lilt� l1ard coral.-..;, StvL'ral 1..'\\a1npll�s \\Vere ohSL�rvcd

\\\\'h('r¢ tht corals \\Yt'rc dying due lo abr•1\\iun nr :-;1nothi.?ring. ('nnccrn is t'xpressi.?d that 1i1e

nbserved phen()111e11un 111ay spread l�1 <H.!jacen\\ art:'a.'o \\\\.'hich ::.c:rv1,.� as in1portanr gh.:•anin� art'aS.

As the algal gro\\\\·th nccurrr,'d hl·t\\-\\'1,:cn n1P11ilnring pl·rinds, th1.: t'VL\\!lt l)r \\.'Vents \\vlliC'h L"<tll�t:-d

this eff('Ct need ln hL' ct,1rifi\\.'tl. Cicnl't«1! nh\\L'r\\':1tinn':i inclull..·. :

I) 'l'lll' 1.:hang.e is rcli.Hivc!y re;.:enL l'Vlor\\:' speL'ii°i(«111y, ;-·iJgal g_nnvth llo11ri d :-:hl' in the pr.:riud

bct\\\\'s.:cn I I th January 1 ()ll3 \\vlicn the la:-1 tnonitoring visit f'nr the pr�vinus outl'all \\vas

cnnducied, <llld I :\\th J\\1ay l 99S during tile ha:-.L·line .-,ur\\'L!Y fol tile re...:011:-.tructed \\)U\\ rail. '\\"he

1nonitnri11g period a'llC'r cyc!o111,.· Kina on i lt!1 Janu;iry, J()•)3 rcpurtl'd that lhL' reef fl.it \\Va\\

unchangi.?d \\\\'lth rc.spt:l't in 1hc ;1hu11danL·e uf 111;H.:ro-:dg;1e hut suflL'nng t'1\\l!ll \\V:tvl:-" and scour

d�1n\\11g._: dlll: lo \\lh: :"1l" nr1n tC�rcen ;ind I n\\·L·il \\ 9Y2: (JrL'1:'ll and Lo\\'L'll. l\\JLJJ). 'file n1a1.:ro

algnl proli(L'ratilHl \\\\a� l°ir"'-l

�rv.._.d l.lurin:::. \\\\1t.'. h<1\\t:li11e :l\\"t.'\\\\1nc.·.n1 J'(lr illt' rc;,.'.O!l�tn1c..·11.'d

ouil�dl \\\\·l1ich \\\\'it\\ cn11du1,.·ted on IX �L1y 1995_ ·rt1i:-. \\\\;\\\\ ag�i\\11 l"\\'. por1L·d 1!\\ U1e Prng_r,:::.:\\

Report or :\\Ui!U\\( [l)l):) c1·,un<1ta and Ln\\"t'll. jl_l�1iJ. Suh�L'l[LIL'tlf �-ln;llysi:. (Jfa :<ttt.'llite i1na�c

(Landsat ·r�1) o! lk!lavu l�1·. cf 1n 1llc v1<>11<1! and inrra-rt•d \\PL'Clrurn t<1kL'n during July. Jll93.

prnv](.\\('� the fi rs\\ t'\\'iCh:'rl\\.·t: u( the a1grtJ prl.:'S\\..'!ll..'l:'.

The nr.-..;t pipeline bt:gan L)pcratinn ll\\ lat..: JY�J i. [\\S t\\p1,.·ratiPn \\\\'(\\� 1nh::ri11inenr. Prnbll'lll�

\\vith tht' p111np op1,.·ration. g_a-.; in till' pipe d11c tu �1ir entrain1n�nt or nrganic dccoff1pn'.-tition

prevc11t1,.·d us� and c:tu�ed it to !"lnat tu th� 0urrace (ll'i.:asiona!ly. ·1·1ie pipe being h1\\1kL'.n

sevcr;tl ti111es due..' Ill anl'l!t)r d;1n1agL'. ·1�IH1ugh tin.' gL'ill'l'<d pLTiod ol ptpl.:'lin-.· ur1L•ratip11 is

kno\\\\·n. th\\.! pr-..l: ·1:-.v qu·dnliliL'.'i pf n1<1!1L:ri.d \\nidL'tl al !ht' \\·ariou .... (lp;.:nin�!I.; a11d thL· pi:riods of

tilll(' involved

unkno\\'dL ·1-lln.:i..' i\\(L'<i� 1.)f \\.·illucn\\ 1:scaj)L' \\\\'l'!"L':

the {1\\ltl;in <II tile' l'!HI p( th\\.' pip�.

llJ

!ht· air V1,.·nt-; \\\\'lii1.·h l\\;;'l'l' prL'\\l'lll on \\.'!i..'\\'a!L·d pL11 i.H.Hl'-. l)r the

pip1:.· g\\.'ni.:�r,1\\ly around the nonht.·rn pt�nllJ1,.'\\1.-·1 Pf H;d.ivu l<i.:·\\.:(

<tlld

1.10 Page 10

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iii)

1hc broken pipe lncalc<i in mid-channel ( approx. 450 111 <�1res)

from th.:: can11ery.

2) The effec1 is locali.,cd tu rhc nurthcrn t:ll(I llf Balavu Reef.

3) The pht.!nomcnon has persisted for three years.

2.2

Possiblt• Causes of the l'IH_•nonH.•11011

Events \\vhich occurrt'd during that li111e and considered to 11,1ve bearing on the phe1101nenon:

(�yc:!one Kina had c�tta�trophic ctTect;.:; on �oine of lhe coral reef environ1nents.

Exposed or branching: corals \\\\·t.'re \\Vorst errected. "!'lie reef flat, as else\\Vhere, luid

patchy dan1age 1,vhL're in :>ion1e ar1..'as rubble huriecl areas of reef. -Sheltered corals

\\vere unaffected. �['he n1a'>sivr.: cnrals 1,vere 1110:\\I n:sistant though suffering ahrasion

during the .\\lornl.

,\\n efflul'nt pipeline 1,vas inst alled to convey cannery \\�·aslc \\Valer 10 tilt:

outside of the harrier reef. ·rhe pipe \\\\.H:\\ co1n1nissioni:d in Scpte1nbcr 199 !

\\V\\th the outfall on tl'l' nnrtheast curncr o!" Bal;ivu Reef al the sea\\vard 111argin

or Ille ch<.tnncl , Na ·run1bari or the South Entrance {F··ig. I).

f-ish oft.al (hits ()f hones, tleSh. guls. skin L'lC.) and fj;.;\\J llleal rt::n1lli1Jll� \\Vhich

accu1nulate \\\\·hcncvl'r tilt.! Fi.sh �1cal Processing Plant break� dO\\\\·'n arc duinpcd

in the channel adjacent the ri.:cr (Fig. I). ·rhis gent;r;-dly i.1, closest to l�alavu

Reef in close proximity w tlw et"l1uc'nt c>utfall.

�fh� clu111ping of -.;uch high BOf) 111alerial is not 1nonitored. In race it has bi.:.·t·n observed that

\\vhen the \\Veatller is rough ;incl \\V�t. the fis!1 \\\\-'astc is. si111ply tlu111ped in tht:.' harbour

(pers.con1111. ·ra111ata/divi.:rs on site). J)epenc!ing on the title and \\\\'ind tin1e. th"is inaterial

could end up in tht> open sea ont�ide t)f 1he rt'efs, or back on the fringing reefs ancl even on

the S!JOJ"CS along the llOrth·t". "<"l�tern �P<lSt]illL' Of ()vaJau.

3.0

lrnpn<.'I or Poll11tio11 Oil (."oral l{Pt.'f' l�l'olngy

C'onsiderations of coral ret'f ecology is i111portant to the understanding of the 111echanisn1

responsible for tile increased do1ninance of !he... algae {se� Appendix I). According to

Hatcher ( 1984), pollutants reaching coral reefs rn ay airer reef con11nunity :-.truc:ture and

enhance algal do111inance by �uch factors as :

• �xcluding grazers due: to toxic. turbidity or incrcasccl prt'dation l...ffects.

• Reducing co1npetition \\vilh other henthic organisrns (e.g. coral) by inhibiting their gro\\vrh

or killing. thent.

• A clearing and/or n1odifying a large area of t!1e substrata in a 1nan11er , or r1t a ti1ne \\vhich

favoured colonisation by a fonn�r!)' r�-\\re (\\lga.

• Increasing the a vailabil i ty of potentially 1in1i1ing nutrients.

2 Pages 11-20

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2.1 Page 11

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�f'he pc-rslstence or tile algal 1..�nrn1nunity af1.l-r establish111ent, pcrhc1ps by a :-.1ng!L! e\\'1.!Jll. 1nay

Ile clue l<) several effects:

i\\ n1acn_)(\\lga \\vhi1.:h had pr�viou"..ly hel·n �nnsun1�t\\ incidentally (i.t:. along

\\i..'ith the tut"!°ing dlga! co1n 1n unity in \\Vhich it \\vas en1bedded) by large

hcrbiVl)n�u� fi:-,11 1',,.�1..·ding non-sc!L·cti\\'cly ht'l;a111t: rcC'ognisablc tn tl1c grazers.

The alpnt' \\\\'ti."> ;1voidt>d due IP it� rc-lative unpalatability. Tl1is al\\o\\\\Cd the algae

to reacl1 a si1c \\\\Iler� by ii � c:s1.·. 1 pr.:d sn1aller

and 1Jeca111e 111ore

u1Ht-cccpt<1bl1..· lo 1hc larger g_ra1cr-; 1ii1i.:- rcl;11 cd escape fro111 predation.

The 111acroalga \\V�ts able to inhibit tht..· 1.:nlonisation 1..)f and/01 lHH co1npete s111;1!lcr

fonns for potentially li11111i11g. l"i.:.'�oun.:e\\ (�.g. l1glll) due to its thalius 111orphology.

\\vllich fonnctl an O\\'t."L"itory.

!'vlicrogra:1crs n1ay ll.">C the 1nal' rn;1 l�a ;)_<.; 1.,hcltc�r. and fc-c-d on potentially

c:on1peting 1nicrnalgat'. ·r1il� ftiod-sl;l' dcpt•nderll sell'c1ivity of gn1zcr� 111ay he

prin1ary i 1n portan t \\\\'hl;'n.:.'. prl.-·t"cn.:1: 11..·c is inv0rs(:Jy rc-lat��<I to tha ll u:-, s11.t'. as it

serves as a positi\\'1.' h:�d hack. facdita1ing shifts fn.nn 1nii:.Tn to n1acroalgal

(h)111inatt:-d con1111unities.

C�hroi1ic l'lev ation or nutrit:rltS du.; to efnuenr or duinping of fish \\\\'astcl)

s1i111ulated gnn\\'th u(alg;1e \\vhich \\\\·erL' Connerly li1nitL·d liy n nutrient dei"icii:nt

i:nv irun1ncnt.

�.O OTllEH OBSER\\'ATIO'\\S OF :\\I.GAi. Alll'�D,\\.'\\CE \\\\'!Tiii� Fl.II:

\\Yithin Fij-\\, high algal (,:UVl'r ha::. bl'<.n:. ohs-.;·rv�d \\11 art•as t.hougln to he suhjel'l lo nlnrii::nt

input. t\\s r.::iled earli1.·. r, th\\] po!lutinn of grtiund \\Valer and it) eiTc.,�(.'t nn the 1nnnrlL'

environ1ntnt adjacent tilt' village\\.., 1nanil'c:-,t in the dl'll�L� gro\\vlh nf algae. Ot!H..:r l'Xi.lll1pl..:s

arc.:

I. -l'he proliferation of Ilt1/i111('1/a .-..p. an1.;'r the dc�truclinn o( tile .·1 ( '/'0/)f!J'tl O\\·c'r�tury [ly

Cyclone Kina ne<1r l�l'\\'uka \\tak11viti

2. /\\ si 1nilar situation 11t \\1ur\\a l'l1in1. Ba \\\\'here it \\\\·a� hypolllesised t11at lhc hreri�dov.:n o!'

pctrnchc1nical �pi)]:-; h�IS given rist" tO UllUSll<tlJy high alga! grO\\Vth off sllOI'L'.

J. ·rhe periodic hlno1ning or tlic .\\'urg{/.\\,'i/fll} along the (.'oral (:pa�( ll11ri11� \\ht; �11111111cr

n1ont hs ha� al1crL·d 1111.·. naturl' of till.:' rer.::f"i.

:1 l{esorts such as �1ana. (\\l;.Ha111�u1ua and Beachcon1her 1l;1vi.;.· all eXJk�ril·nced a chronic

n1ac1\\)-a\\g.a\\ pr�::.�. nci..: <I'.) t\\l1.:'. ri.�':il.J\\I Df nu1ril·n1s c11\\crlng tht> coral rl'l't° envirpn1ncnt.

1\\:-:. \\vith Halavu Rc1..�r. tilt' hirnn;1.-;-., incrL·asc\\ dra1r1�1tica!!y <lunng th-.· �un11111..•r 1nonlh:-i du..· to

gre:1ter insol<ll ion ;1nd ,,·�1r11h:r \\�·alL:r 1e111pi.:n11un;".

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5.11 CAliSE AND EFFECT:

Fro111 ihe above points, it is C\\'idcrll thal 1nany l�t<..:tors 111ay influence !he presence and gnnvth

of n1acroalgacs. Follnv,:ing is a discu�sion of tl1c r�atun.:>s con.liidered in1port<1!1l a.\\ tile JllO�t

i1npor1an1 causal events.

5 .1

Ca 11s:1 I events

I) S ubstrate availahili1y

1\\lgai proliferation as a rt'SLJ]\\ of cyclonic da111agc is highly unlikely as the area as the i"lrea

afrected i� isolated. 'fhi� isolation or cfj'('('l is indicative or a loc�tliscd intlucncc.

The i�olati(ln of t/11.: pl11:n<l1nenn11 \\\\'a" \\'erified hy aerial oh5l'rvation (2/7/96) (Fig. 4 a.h).

Pholugraphic th)i.:u1nentation oftlJL' t:xisting situati()O \\Vas 1nacle as \\Vt'll as observing the entire

barrier rt'ef S}'�te.111. l"-,10\\'1-'ht•rt· \\\\'<�� there an alga\\ abundance Of th,.:. n1',1g.nitude ObStf\\'Cd On

Ilalavu Reef (inspc·ction included thl! nnrtht�rn. l�c,vard or ,.....c.ster11 reefs. and the �nut11er11

reds whicl1 extend lo �10111rikil.

2) /lh undance of herbivores

'rhcrc is no evidence to soggc�t that there ha..:.. been �1 rl'duction in hi..•rbivorcs in this area.

J\\,1igration fro111 0!11cr reef:-i, \\\\'llerc norn1rd cn1n1nu11ity balance exi,'-it:-i. \\\\ould he expected.

There 11as been no a1tern11t \\(l census tht'St" her!iivore�. but thcy appeHr to be in norinal

abundance.

3) Et1tropl1ication (fn)lll Marsnilck i '.187):

lncreas1.:.;c\\ liiniting nutrient� i� a factor '''hicl1 is conducive to algal proliferation and has hcen

described in a nurnfler of publ ic;ttion\\. ·rh\\.' frtc\\ !hat thi-., event i'.-. coincident ivith the

co111n1issioning <lnd u�t· or th(' first pipi: line. and dun1ping in the channel area of fish n1ca!

rcrnnants and of1�1I co111prising fish heads and ri lli:ted skcletnn.s. providl.'s a strong ca:-;:: for

associating cau:-i�- and effect.

Eut roph ira t ion

E.utrophication is a fonn of artificial !'t'!rtili:.a. tinn. \\\\lhelhl'·r ii he s�,.,.·agc or cannery by

products, the presence of nutrient<._; in alH!llClance !1as been dt"scribed in the l iter ature US

causing a shift in con1111u11i1y .strlli.'. ture to less desiralJle species. c:ura! reefs are particularly

susceptible to this type of pollution because of the delicate balance allov..·ing t11c coexistence

of a large nu1nbcr o!' specie\\. ·rin:-i halancr·. i\\ in part 111ai11tained by rcla1ively \\o\\v levels of

avai!ahle nturients in tropical \\�a-\\v;.Her. ·rhi:, balance is up:..el by n1aking (l\\'il!lahle large

alllOUl1tS of llUIJ"it'lltS \\VJiic]l lead tn a dra1llalii.'. i!lCfl!ct."ie in tllt' [JOpUlatioll Of certain .\\j)CCiCS,

usually al the expense of oth�r '.'.pc:cies. in lhc Ba!avu Reef ...itualion. the /lroiv11 algae

,St11:�ossu111 .\\fJ, has flourished 1n !ll1.· exc!u\\iPn of a large porti on of tile previou�ly r�sident

species, pari1" cularly the hard curnh.

1· 2

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The co1npou11ds in the effluent Jl1at are generally considered to drive this effect �lrC nitrati.:s.

and phosphates. In the i.:ase pf !he ca1111erv, tile effluent 111av contain chlorinL' and <Hher

g toxin:-. \\Vhich originate l'ron1 cleaning agl!nts, i11 addition to sev,:a e and fi�h procc:-.sing \\\\·aste.

'fhe actual coinpo:->itinn o( lhe cfllut·1H i:-. un!y categorically krHl\\Vll.

'This proble111 is JlO\\V being r�searclled, but lioth nitrogen and phosphorus arc. possiblt� ag.erH�

\\Vhi<..·. h ('lHISe the. rct1;1nlation c1f coral gn.)\\\\'\\h. F:xce'is phnsphnrus and has hecn 1· n1plicated in

[he gro\\vth of th� algal' cau�ing ciguatcra or fish pois.oning and in the outbrt�aks nf the cnl\\Vll

ot"-thorns Starfish due IO thL' prct'erellCt" ft)r the 111acrn-alga! habitat hy tile �pecies Jj fc �!ages

(8irkclarnl, \\C)82l (.Sc•c Appcrnlix 2 - The .Incidence of Ciguatcra Poi;oning). The fouling

of the seagrass beds through epiphytic gnJ\\\\-'th \\Vith the �uhsequcnt :-.1nnt11L·ring is another

potential constq ut11c..·.e or excessive nutrient� in the e11viron111cnt.

Exampks: Hawaii :md Florida

1\\ \\Yell docun1ented. exainplt' \\)f !hi: e(f;..·ct l)f eutrophication rc'5llltl11g (ron1 or_ganic \\VilS\\es

i." that uf Kanl·ohi_... B;1y. Hi!\\\\'aii. By t.:on!rast, Southern Florida pnivich:.'> ::in �xainplc of the

effect of se\\vilge hein� n1ini1ni."iL'd by good natural !lushing. In both case::-.. prohlcins cr�atcd

by sc1.vage \\\\·ere solvtd /.ly e111ployi11g. pipelines tu conv�y Ille o(rending ef(\\uenl ;nvay fro111

the reef syste1m. Thi' wa' the approach aclnpted by PAFCO w solve 1hc Jl<'llution prnhlem

in the harbuui· but n)Sllltctl 1n a undi..·sirable situation due to th('. proxi1nity of lhi.". r�i:r 1-1.n.?�1 1:\\nd

local hydrography and prevailing \\vind conditions .

Kanehoe 8ay \\Vas \\)(1tlult::d by se\\\\aµ.....· for JO year�. unii\\ a d\\vi.:r:-.ion of ('.ftlu1..�nt to <-1 rc1nute

,(lccan outfall. The potential irn pacts tif se\\\\·agt' 011 the f;1una inclucle nutnent loading:

expos11l'L� to loxic suhst;1nl\\?S stJ<..'11 as heavy n1i:ta l"l. pe:-.ticides. llt'rbicides. chlorin�; etc. ancl

an incr�as� in binch1..�1nical oxyg�n dl'n1and (B<)l>"l. r:.vidence :'ugge.\\IS that nut rient loading

\\i.·as lhc prin1ary cause uf lhL' corn! 111unality and 1..:han,g1..>.!.\\ in c{11n111unity '."!lruL·turc. rhe ha.sic..:

effect of lllltrieil[ fnad ing \\\\'(['.-,lo greatly StiJlllllatt' till' gr<J\\Vtli o{ '.'.Otlh.' groups OJ Org:llil!-:>!11 a\\

the cxpC'nse of 1.)thers leading rn a �hit'r in ihC' Cl1111111uni1y s1ruc1ure. 1'\\l tl1ough produ<:tivity

and bio111ass inc.:rvased.. ci.). rals a� <l g1\\)Uj) did not bt'nt'rit fro1n that lllLTL'<tSL'. J1H.:.rc<1�L'd levels

of nutrient!), e�p�cially 11it1·og.L'n ancl pho:-.plloru..; and food chain rL'lation:-.hips rc.-..uttecl in rile

fn11ov.-ing chan�L'S in L'o1111nunity ..;tn1ctt1rl' 111 KanL·hoL' 8ay:

I) pl1y1opla11ktc'n and "''1plank1.i11 �r,17crs incrca.\\cd dra111a11cally,

2) population nf henth1i.: filter t�L'd1:.'r') e.g. spnnges ::ind 10�111ihid!-i iih.:reasc'd in

response to increaSl·d !'ood �uppJy (plankton and organic dt.:>lritu:.;),

:�) the sedin1cnt-feeding :-.ea ('Ucun1her appeared in large nu111bers .

..J.} tile gnJ\\vlh uf benthic <tlg;te, \\Vas greatly stiinulated.

5) coral decrease<\\ in aln111da1t.:.·c ant! surv\\vt)r� pn,,bahly ha' 1:h.:-crGZ1'il!d gnnvth

r;·ites .

2.4 Page 14

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o f phytoplankton, bentllic algaL'. filter- ft'l'dt'rS and n1any other o rgan isn1s, also pro1not�d t h e

de1nise of tile cnra!s a n d ck'\\trucrio11 o( t h e rc1.·l°:-. .

lTnder cutrophic 1,:o n d i tions., t h l' n.:.·l a t i v�ly shnv gn)\\\\'th rate of coral s can be fatal \\\\'hen in

con1petition \\Vi t h fast gn.1\\ving (H.g,8ni�1ns. esp1�C i'1,lly benth1c algae \\vhich co1np�\\e direct l y for

space and l igh t . As on B:ilavu R�cf. the cora l s died and t h e once l u xuriant coral reef becan1c

a reef flat or lksl1y algae. Rccolo11iza1ion hy cora l is inh ibi ted hecat1se the reef st1hstra1e

colonised hy algae is i naccessi l)iL' 10 cnnil larvae. Lin der norinnl ( n nn-eutroph ic) c o n d i t ions

the grO\\V l h of algae \\VOUJd have heen J i 1 n i tetJ by llllt rien t ava i l a b i l ity, gra7i ng by !ishe:-i .(lllci

other natu ra l controls.

Subsequenl to d iversion to the ocean nu1fall. 'f°he respo n�e \\\\'as very rapid . -rh c re \\Vas a

de.crease in plankton and suspended particulat� \\.vhich r�sulted i n an i n crease in \\\\later elarity.

W i t h i n weeks !he ti l ler !'eeclers began 10 clie i n response to cli rni n i sh ecl fund supply. One year

after t h e d iversion , tile ben! h ic JlPJ"H <llld fauna oJ" tll� hay had 110l n.:t 11 rr1cd l o pre-::;l'\\�'age

con d i tions {S n1 i t h et a! 1 9 8 1 ) . Five year.'\\ a flL·r tile Pu< fal l d i vL·r.., i o n . th{.· alga ! cover c.lel'. l 1 11t�d

to 25 �1a nf its pre-diversion dhunclance ancl l i \\"t: t.:\\)ral coverage a l n 1 C1s! clnubled ( i\\.'la ragn.... et

al. 1 985).

In t h e stare o f · F l orida, good nat u ra l c i rculation l1as al lO\\.\\·ed t h e reel\\ t o cPpe \\Vith t h e

n u t rient l oadi n g origi nat i ng fro111 the eoasral populations. Sc\\vage pol l ution \\vns successful ly

d i sposed offshore se\\vage fro111 the densely popul ated coasta l :-.t rip het\\veen rv1 ia 11 1i a n d Paltn

Beac h . This approach was acl op!ccl in t he i n terest' or p u b l i c hea l ! h . Ten ocean nutfa l l s

d i scharge enonnnus quantit ies n f SC\\vage i n to t h e (i u !f Strean1 ('i rc u l a t i o n . (iond ci rcu lat ion

t h rough tides and coastal cu rrents contribute to d i l ution of ! h e el"!lut:.·1H, conveying i t a\\vay

from the reds.

6.0 EFFECTS

6 . 1 Hea l l h

C'.oncern for tile health or users o f a po! l utecl coastal e n v i ron rnent is based o n t h� fact that

hun1an pa1!1ogi.::ns are ab:e to survive i n .\\it"a\\vater and cat1."ie in fection s i n n1;-111 ( Ed1nond ct a l .

1 979; Flora el a l . 1975). T h e llesl known examples arc outhrcab of i n fcctitHIS hcpa 1 i 1 i s anti

gastroen teritis frP111 t he consun1rtio11 o f shel ! tl .\\h llarvc:-.red frn111 se \\vage pol lu t e d \\\\·ater. ' ! "he

pathogens are in tlH.� fnrin of bacteria , en terovi rust's, protozoa, i.:tc.

Se\\vag'-.': pollution \\Vas \\:li1ninated or at !ea�t signific·cuH\\y reduced by \\he- upgrading of :-ie\\.vage

f � t reatn1cnt fac i l i ! i es n:su l tin g i n the e l i in i nation of o u t fa l l s d i s.:.:l1argin.f..!.. t 1 1 1 t r�ated

by extending the ocean out a l l to !he point of discharge that is ren1 )tc fro1n reefs

se\\vag- e and

and l;a t h i ng

beaches.

In tropical e n v i ronn1ents. ciguatera tish poisoni n g 111ay res u l t frntn tile presenc� ot' a hahitat

\\vhich is conduci ve lo t h � pathogen w h i c h thrives, l i ving \\.\\' i t l 1 i n tile fol i age of fleshy rnacro

aigae. I t s rc:c�1rded pr�sence in Ovalau give� cau"e for co11:-.idcratio11 of lht' proble1n

(Appen<lix 2).

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7.0 DISCL'SSIO;\\

Studies confirn1 thal n utri1:.?nl rich clll ucnt \\uch as �e\\vage or organic v\\·a�tc: create a 1111.1.Jur

stress ro coral and are a s t i 1 11 uJ;-11 1 t tu algal gnl\\\\"l h (Ben.vick and Faeth 1 988, L i t t ler and

Littler 1 9 8 5 . Richmond 1 99'.1, C11c1 et al. \\ 988). In the presence of elevated 11111rients

con1 1nunity :')truc1ur0 \\viii change 10 tllat of algal do111i nance \\Vi t h an i n c reasi ng abundance

of herbivorous. detrita! and !"ilter f('t:dC:r\\ . �rhis 1·1as been consid�rt'd as \\\\l(' underlying

i n tlut.:ncc in regional d i q ri b u 1 iuns ni" CPra! reefs ( \\Vehbi.:-r and "rh11 rn1zu1 1 99 1 ) . [ !' t h e nutrient

source i s n.�111oved t h rough aha1c1ncnt nr d rvL·rs1on , t h e co111 nH1 n i t y structure \\Vi i i revert to the

nc1tural si tuatitl!l in a reasonably shnrt 1 i n1c ( f'v1aragos et a ! . 1 985: S n i i t h 1 977; S n 1 i t h ct al .

198 1 ; Evans et a l . 1 9 85 ) .

7 .I Previous l)ispn'.al

"rh� '"''aters adjacent tll-.� J>1\\F(:() cannery havt', s inct: i ls i 111.:.eption. been a convenient \\Vay

Of clispnsing o f i t s l iq u i d \\Va:'-.lL'S. 'j'IJjs \\VaSIL' !Jas IJCCll l'llaraclerised h)' l[_r.;Jl falS and o j J :-., ,

Sc:\\vage a n d other :-.uspendi.:'d 111atc>rial 1 h a 1 has 111adc: :\\\\V i 1 n n1 i ng i n rl1e!-.e \\vaters ohjcct ionahle.

·rile lllaierJal ,is general l y tr<l11�porll'd along the CO\\l'.',l rnr :-)C\\'l.'ral k i !Oil1t:lrl!b, \\Vilh ITHICh Of

the. �olitl, huoyanr n1aten;il being dcpo ) i t...:d on the beach or in the intertidal Lone. In t h i:'

dt:pauperate reef ;:\\rea, ;H,nxic · �... di1nents occur d u e tn i\\s high urganic l'nn\\enl. t\\h.' fo1 1 ! 1 11g �)f

inoored boats and tilt' s111e!I \\lf !hi..' <.h.·1.:01111Hl'iing inat\\."'rinl ar1.·. .\\Olllt.' of the con:-iL'qUt'nL·e.-..

1\\part fro111 the i 1 n pact of se\\vage and ntlH.:r sen1i -.\\l)lid organic inatrcr. large solid pieces of

hones have b�Cll d i scl1arged a!nng thf.:" pipel i n e:" . [)j\\,�l"S laying tilt'. pipl"li nl' have round a heap

of hones, appro x i r n a h .'ly 3 Ill \\\\'idl' ;ind 5 Ill h i g h in about 50 Ill or \\\\'aler \\\\'i t h in t h e harbour,

b\\."t\\VCL'!ll buoys I and 2, at th� ...i t L' \\\\'hl'rc ! h..:.- r1.?constrth..:ted pipt· l i nc" had brnh:i.:'n rt:L·en t ! y . 'file

div�rS ha\\·C a{sn i.:'111-.'.0ll\\"\\lt'l\\�d '<\\ bigg1.': r pi h.' (a:-; hiE.h <t"i l () lrt) of ::,uCh 1nateria\\ j ll the dt.:'eper

part o!" tile channe l , !llOS[ pn1bahl)' \\\\'l\\t'f'L' l hE' fir�t t� IT!Ut'I'( p1pvJi111.:.' \\VH\\ d a111aged hy hoat

anchors. l'ht: prcsencL' of honL'S are i n d icative or till.� rclc-a�t· ot' additional nutri('nts fron1 the

dcco111pos i t i o 1 1 o f !leshy porl1011-., or llh.' fish \\\\'a!-ite as \\\\'C J ! as tlH:' l i q u i d cfflut• n t . -rh i s

'sctH!\\ and ndditiunal sourc(' t)f c ffluL·nt i n tile prux 1 n1 ity of the: reel°.

·r11 i s tlltt"ring proct'S.) for 1he fi -.;11 processi ng \\Vaste:5 !ht\\ not operat ing efficiently. The ba�kct

in the filtering lank \\s \\.':\\early i nadcqu<.Ue fcir thl' voltnnt of \\\\·a�te pa:-ising thrtlugh. ,1\\t the

t i 1ne of tile rel'.l.'IH visit, the P1\\FC ' ( ) � 1 a 1 ntc11anl.'c' Supl.'rintendent \\vas a\\var� of t h i s prohlen1

and aui:111pting to n.:-cti t'y i t . ( P\\..� r . l·t1n1nL , �fa111ata/Ku1nar, J uly· ll.)96).

I n the �1hsence nf the npt ir1n for an on-si te.· tn.::a1 111en1 (John ('ook�, 1\\ J J )f\\. I) �oll.\\ U l t a r H . pers.

co111111 . J , the clL'L:isitu1 \\ ( > Cll!l�trUL'l a p i pL·l i llL' to conv�y � t'tl UL'lll fn1111 thl' l ' t\\ rC :< l cann�ry

beyond the a{li acent barrier r�ef appt•arcd as a \\vclco111e nlternati ve . I t ha!-. heen l..'on.-;idt."red

SUl'CC�:-ifu\\ in c\\ariry i n g ihl' \\\\'�lll'TS i n .'iiJnrt:: during i t.\\ iirief j >t.'l'iPd or npcr;-H i O t l .

lln fortunately, i t llas had an ,!t'fecl o n t i l e <1tlj�1ctrH barrier rc�r \\Vhich has y e l t o h e eva!uated

fu l l y in lt'rin� or it:-,. con:-it'.qui:ncL'.':.. <JL·ean d i �po'ial for <u1 island natiof1 ,,· her-e land is at a

pre1n i u 1 n . can b1.�. ;1 convenient n1c-thud i ( the right c i rcu1n�tano.:. c':. exi'\\t. Lven \\V i i h .;.,0111e

proble1n'i e\\·entua1 i n � . it n1ay lie preferable \\vllen �ill co:-.t) c1 1Hl h�'ncfits ar� ana! y:-.ed .

2.6 Page 16

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7.2

lnaclequatl' l�rror·cl l(ePping

l ln fortu nalcly, a f11 l l e r 11nders1and i n g tll° l i t e el'lecl "f t h e efllnent or fi1h offal clisposal has

been g reatly co111 pro111 i secl due 10 !he i n acleqnale record keeping by PAFCO manage1nen l .

D u ring the recem visit \\0 Pi\\FCO o n .l 11ly 1 I th and 1 2 t h , the J ' i\\ FCO fvlaintenance

S u p e -r i n t e n d e n t con tinned that no record is kept of tilt> days i.vhi:n fish 111eal reinnanls are

d umped in the sea, or when !he lish 111eal plant broke d"wn. The o n l y way 10 get s11cl1

i n forn1atio11 \\Vas i n d i rect l y fron1 the d a i l y production records. Llnf<)rtllnately, \\Ve have not

been able to vie\\v thesC' r�'cord� (it�...p i t e repeated requests to p,,\\F('(J l\\1anager11enL

Ir is in1portant to he ahle to dl f!Cn.:-nriat12 bel \\veen 1l1e e 1leei of the fish rneal d u n1pi11g and rhe

effl uent. as tile 111eal \\\\'aste d u n1 p i n g: \\\\'i l l cea�e \\Vi t h the repai r or purchast� of proces:)ing

equi pment. Concern w i l l l11cn rern�in for Ille effect of the piped eftluenr. At this stage. there

i s a date for the co111n1is�ioning o r U1e !"i r.':.l pipelines operauon but tl1ere i s no quanti tic;1 tion

or other tlo\\\\' tllrough data. Furt!�L·nnore, the dO\\\\'ll Ii rne dut' to pipel i ne dan1agc or pu111p

is llllkflO\\Vll. �rhc period� and qu;tll{ i tiC-\\ O f lhe dU1npi !1g ()f till". ri\\h llh.."<1.l U!l kllO\\\\·Jl.

7.3

fn('f)mplrte Facilit,v

Regrettab l y , 1n�1l'.h nf tht' liq\\lid \\\\'Cl�\\\\.�'.) cunllnuc: to i:rnpty into the \\Vat�rs adjacent the plant

( Fig. 4e). \\\\.'hen tllL' scv.·a�c pu111 p:-. ,1n.:' 11t"1n-operatitinal or, a:-i in t ilt' present ca.st:, the

pipeline i s rece i v i n g on. 1he ra\\v se\\vage is d u 1npcd \\Vi t h i n tht' harbour \\Vhich contarninates

t11e. shores and v.:aler� o f Levuka. l ronic;11 !y, the prn x i n1 i t y of the sc\\vagc ovcrtlo\\v pipe to

the cann�ries Se<l\\Vtlter i n take, i nc rease.\\ tile ri.r.,k o f e11train 111Clll nf Se\\vage pof l u l ecJ St';i,\\Valer

for the proce.�."i i n g of the fish for /H1111an consu1nption.

l)uring tile recent v i s i t to p,.\\ f'C:() on July I J t h and l � t h . a bright on111ge l iq u i d d i scharge

\\Vas drailf1ng fro111 tilt.:? freezers in rile il·i.:: plant di rt'Ct i y 11110 !he harbour i ns idl' t i l e- \\\\'harf an:a.

next to tile Port� i\\uthority C) rfice. 'fhis l iq u i d 1.\\ clisc/1arged during norinal !'n.�ezer

111ainti:nance opera1 1011 and i t i :-. pn:".\\Un1ed to bt� very tox i c . ha,·ing a l1 i g h a1111non·1 u 1 n

concentration, accord i ng t o \\\\'Orkers intervic\\ved . I n t'acl i t \\Vas point�d out that the liquid

k i l l s all l i t� fonns \\Vi t l i \\vh i c l l i t ha\\ d i recr cont;\\l.'.!. ·rh is l'X plai ned \\vlly t l 1 e concn:te sea\\val !

a n d .stones i n t h e area appean.xl very clean \\\\ i t h n o s i g n or algal cncru5tatio11 o r n1o l l u sc� as

observed 011 the �lllll ht.:rn parl:-. or ! ht.'. \\\\'llarf.

Ll n fortunatc!y, tilt.'. continued prest�nce of the inshnre eftl uen1 d i 1n i nishc� I lle val ue ot the

pipe. l-figh col i fonn anti n u t rient levels .:n n t i n uc to be rL�corclcd inshor(' dt�spit� i t s succe�� t'u l

operation . 1'he nature: of the slick i s vi"iLH1 l l y uncli n 1 i n i �licd. The pre)enct' o( lhc gas vents

further offshore h;;1s created the presence of a ne\\V � l i c k . \\Vh i l e it i -., true 1llat the b u l k of 1he

\\Vaste is transpl)ftccl offshore. tllat \\\\'l1ich cont i n ues to he voided i n sl1ore resul ts i n poor water

q u a l i ty that is are far beln\\v acceptable standard�. ·r1ie consequence of tran.sporting the \\i.:ater

offshore has l'.fe;ued add i ! it)nal prohlcrn) hotll i n t1;'. rn1s of health and Cl1\\'ironn1cr11al cl'fcl.�ts.

8.0 COi\\'CLllS IO:\\'S

Several factors 1nay have contrihuted ll) the grn\\vtl1 of tile algae on rhe nor! lit'fll end of

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llalavu Red:

l ,i { �ytlonc K i na 111ay havl:' prcdi:-.posL·d tht' r�er to t h L' algal pro l i reration by tile ck.�nudi!lg

f)O!'t iOllS of the sub.strale hut t h i "i (aclor !S cnnsid�re<i of !Hinur \\rnportance.

2) lt can unly be in ferred 1 h<1t 1hc n u t rient levels \\\\'ere elcvatecl by eftlucnt from tile first

1,vaste 1,vatcr pi pi: a� its l1peratio11 \\\\'ii\\ ::.poradic ancl i t s area of i n ll ucnce variable d u ri n g

t h e pcdod bi:ing considcrl'd . J n tile reLL'!ll 1nonitoring o f t h e o u t fa l l , elcvatt:d levels o f

hnth n i t rogc-11 and pho�phorU'i lla\\'e been detei.:ted i n ! h re Vicinity o f \\\\)c 0\\1\\\\'a \\ \\ cr;�ll1Cl\\;1

and Lovell l 'J'Jfoi). S i 1 n i l a rl_v. i i is i n ferred that nutrient levels have been elevated by

the dumping of fish meal by l'A l'C:O a\\ \\lie nmuth uf \\lie channel . I n !10th cases. t idal

action \\VtH1ld have conveyed t h (' n u t ricnts into I h l' l agoon systen1 and on to the. n�c(

( Ll oyd and Peter, 1 98 9 ) .

3) 'l'he Pi\\l-7(:0 �tanagc-1ncnt nc:L'ds 1 0 i i n pro\\'t.' un t i l t:' ri.:"gu l ,u1on o r a n d rnunitoring o f t hi:

�ftluenl leaving ti\\� ph\\11\\ ! in p;;1r1icuh1r tilt:' :scre-ening uf ri�h \\\\'fl�tt:' pa��·1ng t h rough the

pu1nps. to en�urc t l i L' l a r,µc sol id � a rc retained in the ractory itr1<l rcU\\t·d nr L'on1 po'\\tl.:'d .

l)uring the J uly J YlJh v i s i t . till] 1>!ant 1\\l a i ntenance S u pi.' ri1He11c'.cnt \\Vas reportedly

\\Vorking \\virh S i nc l a i r K n ig h t 1\\ll'rl on a \\Y':-.lt'!n o( 1tnproving 1ht> screen i n g pr\\l\\.'.ess \\'or

t11e fish \\\\'�\\\\Ii..' 1akc11 out i n tll� pi pL'l i nc.

4) ·rhc fi sh 111�;11 probk'111 \\V�l'i 1.1.�.. i n g addressi:d by t h e l>.l\\ FC :( } i\\:Jan:igcn1ent at rhe t i n1e

C.lf t h �i.. site v'1 s i t in J u l y 1996. ·1·11e P!ant !\\:la i nt�na1H:0 Superinl('ndcnr \\\\'as considering

a n u inher pf quutatinn:-. rur a ne\\\\ risll rneal plant 10 replace t h � c:-:.istinE'. on�.

9.0 RECO� I� IEN!l1\\TIO;\\S

.l )

I)uc lo the prtiY a i l i n µ currt' n t s . \\\\' i n d d r i rt and \\\\'t·\\\\'C aclinn, 2m1 pipl'l ! nt• outfall

�hould he :-.i ttd adjacent lllC' area a l ready aflC..·. tcd by algal grO\\Vlh on the

st�a\\.vard edge of northern Bal;ivu (\\� rar �outh (IS pos:-;i b l e ( F i g . 2 ) . In t h i .'i

1nann e r . The a!gile .;\\hundance on \\he re�f \\l;ll 1nay serve as a n a l u rril :'.i n k for

the ll i t rngen, pll0$[1!JOJ'Oll'.-, and Other l!!ldCSi rahll' COlllJlOlli..'!ll'.>' of the t:t'f/ llL'll ( .

Likelihood ·Of con1:1 1 n i n a t i o n of tht: adjace n t rt.��'f \\VlliL'h i � a popular part u r lilt>

suh si stL'nc..-. tishcry i :., reduced.

�·l o n i tnr t he..: levl..:'l" of n i lrat..:.s and phn:.iphales !lt'ctr the ou1fall a11d on tlil' area:.,

of F:lalavu and I.ekaleka reC"fs afl't�cted and l i kel y to h� a ffected hy n u t rient

�\\evati O n to gain ;1 be!t<:r ll!ld(>l"Sl;tlld!!lg O f the pel\\'CiV<..'d t�ffect .

l ·urthc-r ;;1 1 1 a l y s i s or' the ou t fa l l to dl'len11i11c 1nx1c1ty o r prt��L:ncG o f poten t i a l l y

l1annful eu1nponent� such <t\\ cn!i !'orn1 \\evth. ::ind h�;\\YY incta!.

l\\1nnitnr tht.: pn.:'SL'nl·� nf tn,'\\ i n;-, or cont;nninatiun l fct1.'. 1.'<ll, !1cc1 \\ y ini.:.tals. t.'lC . )

i n Ille !'otid i te1ns trad i 1 i()na!ly g l e.tned fruin t he. l'L'L'f.

Establish ! l i e na{urc (..lf the e r n u..·. nt by ohtainlng 1 h e <.:lllTL'lll l\\1!lnery ( j j -;posal

plan.

2.8 Page 18

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!:stabli sh a construction 1-1chcduli: for the ('\\Hrainnh!nt t)f all of lhl' liquid

effluent i n t o t h e llll tiitll sysk'rn .

Establ ish proct>clures and accountab i l ity for the record i n g or ille nat u re and

quantilte.� of \\.vasle disposl�d offshore.

To lessen the affects on till' o ffshurc reefs, provide su111c kvd ot prc

treat rnem nr the ertl uent on -site he l'ore ocean d i sposal.

J\\1on i tor the p rcsl'ncc of (;an1hit>rodiscu., roxic ·us in the 111acro-algae on the reef

!lat.

l O)

Establ i sh both a .\\)'"ile111 for ! hi: lllolliloring or tile preV(llence of ci gt1atera

pois.oning and ftll· the i n c id1.�nt of ciguatoxin i n fi.�IH::\\ l i kely to br;? concentrating

it.

REFEl{ENCES:

Banner. A t·! 1 974. Kaneolle Bay, H:.l\\\\'ai i : urban pnl h11 !on and a coral reef ccosystein. !'roe.

2"" /111. Coro/ Nr'l/ .))'1111>. . 2 : bg)-702.

Beder S ( 1 98'l). Toxic foil a11d 'ewer surl'i 1 1 g . U 11wi11 l-l y 1na11 Ille. I S B N I! 04 442 1 1 2 5

Ber\\vick N L ::ind Faeth PI-: I LJX8. S 1 1 n u !a 1 i ng the i n 1 pact'\\ or sc\\vagc di sposal on coral reefs.

Proc 6111 Jnr. ('ora l Rel.!f Syrn p . , ;-\\ u s. . ! 988, vo! . 2 .

Birkeland, c: ( 1 08 2 ) . 'l\\·rre�tri«ll runoff a� a ca u o,;c of 1.). u 1 b rl�a k ' ot" .1\\canthastcr planci

( Ec h i 11oder111atn: 1\\steroideaJ. Mor. Biol. 69: 1 75- 1 85 .

Brodie, J E :1.nd l�yan. !\\•\\ { ! l.J. �7J !-'.11vin..Jn111ental 1 1 1 o n i 1nrinf ti!" Ille -i rt:'asun:' I s l a n d 111ari11�

SC\\\\'Crage o u t (a! I . 1::11 1·iro11111t'flfal �\\'uulie.\\ f«'JlO/"f 3{J. lnstiHHe or Natural Resnun..:es.

(J n i versity of the South J>ac i f i c . S u v a ,

(�uet P , Naiin () , Faure Ci . a n d (:011.an J Y 1 98 8 . Nulrien l - R icil (irourH.l\\\\·ater fn1pact on

Bcnthic Communities of La Sal ine Fringing Reef ( Reunion lsla11 r l . I n d i a n Ocean):

Prel i111i nary Results. Prol'. 6(" I nternational (.�oral Reef Sy r n p . , /\\ u�L V o l 2 .

Edrnoncl DT, Schaihertkr G E a n d Ucrl1a C P 1 979. Detection ot' cmeroviru scs nc;ir deep

marine sewage o u t falls_ Mar. Poll. R11!/. , 9 :246-c49.

Evans ('., f\\'taragos .I and H o l t h u s P ! 9� ) . Reef !.'. Ora l ;-, in Kan..:ohl.' lk1y. S i x year) b�fore

and afler tennination of St:'\\.Vage d i scllarges (Oahu , Ha\\\\·ai ian i\\rch ) . I n : ('oral reel'

population biology, Jokiel , P, L . , l<i('luno1HL 1< . f- 1 . and Rogers R . 1\\ . Ha\\\\'ai i l ns ! i t u te of

Mari ne Biology Tcchnil'al Report No. .\\7, l'l'· 765-90.

1-'lora SC. f�enzi Clf' and Badolati Ci l975 . r>C'tt.�. ction of anin1al viruse'.'. in cpa:-;tal :.ea\\.\\'ater

aml sed i ments. Af>plied Microl>io . . .10 : 472-475 .

2.9 Page 19

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Green D R . Uoycl C R , Lnvcll t'.R ! L/lJO. Env i rnnmcn\\al !inpact of tilt' Ex1cnsiLlll of Ille

P1\\J�C'CJ " C'.anncry. 4:'i pp. fn.-.. t i i u !t' ur Nal u ral Resourct>s. Liniversi ty 0f the Soutl1 Pacific.

I N R-90-07.

Green D R . Love l l ER 1 99\\l PAFCO Mn11110ring Report. November, 1 LJLJO. Institute of

Natural Resource,. I ! n i ,·e"i t y oi" Ille Sou I ll l'aci fie. J N R-90- 1 9.

(ireen f)l-!.1 Lovell 1::1< 1 99 1 . Paci fie Fisll i n g (�01npany: E n v i ron111..:ntal rvtonit(lring l�i.'. port.

1nstitute of N a t u ral Rc....o u rce..,, l J n iver."iiry of tl1L: Snuth P.:1ci fi i.: . I N R-LJ J -24

Circc11 . J ) I( . ! .(1vell ER J Y9� . I'aci r'ic F i c.,h i ng C'o111pany: E111.:iron111l· 1 1 1 a l i'vl o n i tPrlng R�purt

1 99 2 . 11\\S E11vi r011 11ie111:il S t ml i c'' l<qH1rl No. o.1.

L i tt!l'r �·l � l

producers Oil

1111<1

hiu

lllkr

l\\;('fs.

SP r n! t'.:J. X).'i1,1 1

hic1111»

l n i . ( 'or�d

L"<11 l l ro l ! i ng. rcl11 1 i vc dominancL>

Reef c:ongn:�Ss 4 : 3 ) -.:!.9.

primary

Lloyd (' R and 111.:'ter \\V I S)RlJ. ('nn:-;.ultaney Rcpi_H·t (or Ric.•dt'I and Byrnl" Levuka Harbour

( ( ' urrent ivle;;-1s11ren1c1Hs and \\Valer t)ll<tl i t y .A.na\\ysis) /:VF� f-·..'Jn·iru11111c·n10! ,\\'11ufie.\\ l<l'/)(>n !Vo.

C42; Ocrohcr, 1 989.

r\\:1ar;t1g.os J E . Evans C� and 1-h i ! l h u s 1 1 I LJ85 . RcL'f c<irals i n Ka11l'ohe Hay s i x year."> herore and

after t..cr1nination or Sl'\\Vag� t(}a h u . Ha\\V<.ii i�ni J-\\- rc\\1 . ) P rui.;, 5th I nt . C'oral l�e�f congrt'.\\S 4 :

1 89- 1 94 .

i\\1arsLalek D S I 0 8 l . [f!'t·c.:t.\\ c1f S1.'.\\\\'llg.L' e!Tlul'nl o n n.::c r coral�. />roe. '!lthe 41r /!1111/. (,'oral

li<'e/ .\\."l/lf'O-'i11111, Mo11i/a, / 'JS / , \\'o/ I .

Marszalek l)S 1 9B7. Sc\\vagc and L'u l ropll1<.:,l l l l)ll , H u n1an l 111p.lLt'i t111 ('pr;1I R1.�. �fs: FctL'I� and

Reco111111endal it111s. ll. Sal\\·:11 Ed . 1\\ te1rnc' Mus. l' . l' . H . E, / · rcncil l't1lync»i11 l S /lN 2-lJO)td0-

06-X .

f\\1 i l l e r Ci.I 1 978. c ·ri 1 i c.1l rcv1L'\\\\ p f prupo-;ed Ciold ( 'oa\\l :-:.e\\\\'d�L' d u t fa 1 i . I J1 1 p u b l . Repon

9)pp. <Jueensl;intl c :( l l l l llll:l'L' l<if J · i\\J\\1.>. n11a11 " :i /\\S!'illl' . Brishatl\\.�.

Naqasi1na l'\\·1 / ()l)) ( I I ! prl� p ) . J J J \\·'t'\\ l i ga 1 i o11 o( a lg<tl prolifcn.\\ti{J!\\ at rvlata1ni:\\!lO(\\ I . (\\ rcp�'n

to 1nanagen1en 1 .

Rass111ussan c: 1 9�8. i:rrl�L't o r !Htlricll('-, carric.:.'d by lllilinland run - o il Oil r�ers I ll ('.airns a n.:a.

66-9 I pp. In Nwri<'ll/.1 in !11<' Gr<'m /l({rri<'r l<e<f l"<',don. W1>rk,hop series N n . I 0. ( ircat

Barrier Reef M a r i ne !'ark 1\\ 11ill<lri1y.

R i c h 1noncl R l-f J lJlJ � . ('u1«1! Rccts: Pr,':-;cnts ProblL'lllS and F u 1 1 1 rl' (:oncern:-:. Re:-i u l t i ng l'ron1

Anthropogenic i ) i �1u rb�11h.:� An1er. /.nol . 3 J : .'1 .2-+·5.lb ( I YY.\\).

!�ythcr .!R and 1)11n\\t;1n \\\\'!\\ 1 . 1 97 1 . N i t rogen. phosphor\\Hi.':>. and t..' u l rophi1.:at i o 1 1 10 ! lie. cua\\ta!

1narin� c n v i ron1n1.·. 11 t . Sch'llC<'. 1 7 1 , : l U08- ! 0 i "� .

2.10 Page 20

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S111 i rh , S V I LJ77. Kaneohe Ray: r-\\ prL·iin1inary rt.:port t)n !he responses of a coral

reef/estuary ecP�y�te1n to rl'laxatinn of :-OL'\\\\·age strc5.�. Prue. .11'1 I n t . (�oral Reef �yu111p.

2 : 577-58.'.

S m i t h , S Y , Kimnwrer WJ. Laws E?\\ , Brock RE and Walsh TW 1 98 1 . Kaneohe !lay sewage

d iversion experin1ent; p1.�rspcct i v�s l)ll ecosy·sten1 responses to n utri tional pcrlurbation.

Pacilic Science y; (4): 179-JY:i.

Tamata B R , Love l l FR I 995 . Baseline survey and water quality for the laying of a waste

water outfall at l'.'\\FCO. Progress Hepnrt N u . I - S\\Jay. 1 995 ; J r\\S Envi ronmental Report No.

78. A t1¥t1St 1 99 5 .

Tarnata BR and Lovell l'R i 996a. Wat er q u a l i t y a n d cora l reef assessmenr for the Pi\\FCO

ou t fal l first llll)tl iloring nf!cr pipel i n e construction ,.\\ugu.;,1 J lJ9(1 . J.,\\S r:.nvironniental Report

No. 86.

Webber HH and Tlrnrman H H 1 99 5 : Coral Reds and the Nunient Level Paradox. Marine

Biology Harper Col li n s Puh l . pp 2 1 1 -2 1 3 .

\\Vcs1n1;:i11, \\VI: '{ 1 97.+ ) . :\\ nt�\\V :straicgy f{lr c:lcar \\\\·ater.

4 : 2 7-32.

Zann LP ( 1 9LJ � ) . ·rill' State o f Fij i ' :, f\\1 a rine r=.nv i ron1nc:nr. N at iona l Enviro11n1ental

l\\'htnagt"n1ent Project Report . Fiji (;overn n1crH.

3 Pages 21-30

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3.1 Page 21

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Al'l'E�ll!X 1 : ALGAE - Tl l E ECOLOGY O F ABUND/\\'-:CE

Tile purpose of including a n exa1nple n r < 1 :-. h i p vvreck \\vhich rL':-.u! tecl in urH1:,ual aig.al

don1inance is that it provides a �nod description o f al lernat ive hy potheses \\\\'hich n1ust be

rl'solvcd before reacll1 ng an i n forn1cd conclusion as to the origins or the unexpectL'd

proli feration of 1nacn.i-algac.

( r ro111 H atcher, BCJ 1 984. 1\\ 111ariti111e ("tl·cident provides evide111..'L' for alternate stable states

in benthic co111111unities on u>ral reefs. Coral R1•1•f.\\ 2 : 1 99-204).

�rhc bulk carric:r 11'/. V. 1--/orhla g round�d on l\\·1y rn1idon Rt.:l..!f on the Cire;:it Harric.r H.eef,

i\\ust ralia in June, 1 976. ·rile vc'lsel ' ::. initial i1npac1 \\va:-i on till' \\vinclv..-ard rnarg i n \\\\'here i t

grounded o n the rei.:f cre"st co111i11g t o rest n n the re12f ilat. A large quantily o r pO\\\\·dc1\\:d rock

\\Vas (kpositc·d nn till� n.:�t•f !lat. 1t \\\\'<l' �uh.)1.:qu\\.·11tly \\Vash1.�d .:1\\vay \\\\'i t h in inon t h � .

l)ocuinentation t�r the e!lect of lh� \\\\TCck \\\\';t:.-- i n "\\pril, 1 980, four y1.·ars a fter t h e even t . 'rh�

grounding i s an exa 1nple of a pcrinanenr change in lilt.� reel' llats algal co1nn1unity. Tht'

\\Vreck precipitated an appan.:�1Hly �tahll'. ll1dcroalgal do1ninared shift fro1n the n1icroalgal

don1inance due to tile disruption and hcn1 por:: 1ry pullutinn resulting rrnn1 a shi p g rounding and

the dumping or i1s cargo ( Hatcher. 1 984) .

Algal Respon"'

Elevation in di:-.s~)\\V1..'d pho~p!rnt1: did no\\ 1.:,rn'il: an increase: in in;1crn-algat:'.

!\\ thin layl'r of fila111ent\\'1t1.'io and 1.:ora l l i nl' al�,te hi.td � ro\\\\'11 �n er rn uch o r 1l1e rubble. in the

art�as \\.\\'Orst el'ft'l..'tt.".:d . \\.Vitl1 1 1 1 c·1gh1 111p11th.� . !hi� l1ad died hack and t h1.· alg,tl cover \\\\'as nn1t.h'.

lhe Siillll: .as the .'ill rrnun d i n g area ill appcar<111C�. ·rhc: algal cover i n thi.: zoni.:. grta!est a frcctcd

re1nained hlg.her 1n pcr<..:i..:ntag� t'O\\'l'r than lh..:. adja\\.'l'11l <U\\.'<1.S.

l_ikely e ffect :, of the ship �rou n d in g :

• Effect local isi.:�. rl

• Presence of a 111acroa!gal h\\00111 !'.itin1t'l i 1 n e occurs (\\1',alkcr 1'.V.. ()nnond, 1 982 ; Halcher

1 984) lhnogh JH>! in thL'-i study. Ei ther the pri2se11cc o( herbivores \\V<t.\\ sul'ficienr to crop

the algae i n \\vha1 is <1 rclati\\"C'ly s1n�11l arl'a. \\Vellington 8:.. \\'ictnr { I 985) roun d tl1ere

to be a proliferation of alga! dc:velop1ne1H a fter \\Vidt' spread \\.·oral 1.k'<Hb dut' to the El

Nino events or 1 982-83 lllC!\\.?<tSillg the �I J"t..';\\ or �1vailahlc :-.uli·-arar.c. I n till\\ t.'. aSl', it i \\

prc.su1ned that th� natun: of the subst rC\\ll' \\\\.'<JS nut suitabk· tor �t·t1 l i.:1ni..:nt.

• 'fhe initial incn.:ase in pol ! t 1 1 i(111 by !ht' p hP:-.phatc cdrgo \\Vc\\S the t\\"'.sult o(\\he 11H1'\\t

soluble factlnns di s::.n l v i n g and di�[H.:rsing..

•

rrh� residual prc..;e11ce p( the ca rgll tllay e ffect rt>�et llen1ent.

·i t 111ay be round to r d e t11..'<..' tile rai l� or calc1 rication ( S i1nki.s.. :.,

In tl1t.: case o!"" p!Jo<.;phale. .

J 964 : K i nscy and !Javie� .

1 979).

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Exarninatil1ll of a \\Vreck 5 years after the event has gi ven rise to speculat i on that the

shipwreck caused a pcnnanen! change in the nature of the algal co1n1nuniLy. A n area

characterised lly a rnicroalgal ( 1 1 1 1 i l ayered assemblage of turfing and coral l i n e algae)

environ1nent clev�lopc>d a 111acrnalgal asse1nblagt> (fleshy red algae, A.\\jJ(lrogo11.\\·is f(/XffiJ11nis,

\\Vhich developed an ovcr:-.tory). JJue to it:-. size and genera! unpalatability to grazers. tb�

111acroalgal con1 1nt1n i ty pcrsisled a� an alternative stable state.

Functionally these l\\VO a�se1nblages arc d i stinct as the 111icroalgal cornrnunity is constantly

grazed (tlatcher 1 982) \\Vllile the b u l k of the pri 111ary production i n tile n1acroalga!

co1n1n u n i t i es enters detritus food \\vebs (rviann 1 982 in Hatcher 1 984). ·rhe n1acroalgal

overstory overgn)\\v.s the J i ve coral resu l t i ng in J�s.s lhan I �;'( coral CO\\'L'L iVl icro invertebrate�

(prin1arily a111 phi poda and crabs) \\\\'en: 1nuch 1norc abundant in th� 1nacroalg<il ·don1ina1ed

community ( Hatcller, 1 984 ) .

Fro111 f;atcher ( 1 984) '' TL"n1pcr;1k l1<1rd�bnllo111 1.·n1n1nunit it.'!' aJ"c "uh_1el."t [\\) drmn:1! 1c: !-hi ft:-: trolll 1na..: ro

\\I} 1nii.:ro;1!gal dn1nin:ini..:e {N1iJ"!h ! (.l7 J : \\\\:11111 !977), \\\\ h 1<..:h 1..·�rn rv�ull i n ncH· anti .qiparently stahle

(01n1nunitics \\vith an al!<;"ft'd �pe1.'i1.·.., ..:clinpl).-.:i1i1in and r1.:tlw:1.·d algal :-.\\�1nJ111,g i.:rttp. p1\\)d ti..::1iv1ty mu.I

i..0: 1n1nt'r!.'ial yidd (Chap111an 1 98 I : \\Vh,1rton :u1d �1<11111 1 9 8 1 ). Sui:l1 changes in tilt' fundan1ental ;..1ructufe iif

1narinc h:::nthic c<Hl\\llllll\\itic:-:. h�1ve ll'-'lla!\\) hccn sh11\\vn \\D he the di1 <::L"i re.,ll!t of d�:..1n11.:tl\\:� �razing hy hcnthH.:

echi nod�nns in nu 1ncrical or hd1avio\\1ral r.-...p1111-.:i: 111 reduced pn:tlatiiin ( E:-.lc:-. and Paln1isu10 1 9 74:

l..<1\\\\.TCIH.'� 1 97): Bernstein ct a l , 1 9 8 1 ) . Btu tht' undc-rlyi n!! causl.'f. s) o r th.: shit"!:-. and !ht:' rdali\\'c .-.tahd1ty

of lho:-. nc\\V cot1Ulll1tlity stnv.:turc t"t:n,aitl uh�..�·ur::. ( \\iann. l fJ 7 7 ) . Afc lht:)' sirnply a r1::-u\\t of n:1lln:1\\ cy1:\\t.'S

in tht: rl:'lative :ihun<lam.c.: of prt:<.folors ;.ind prl:'y i".'-lurth !97 I ; R11-.:;>nthal el a l . 1 97..J.)'! ()r o.lft..' tht'y

perturh;1ti1 H1-rd,1k·d ch:1nge,..; ht't\\vcc:n :t!lernclle �tahl..: ...1a!e' (sensu l loll111� 197'.1; Sutherl:tnd I lJ74), J"l:"ljlliring

anolh.:.r r�1turhution or natund ��at:1;-;rroph0 to ri.::turn th:: :.:.01tt111unity h• it-., urigina! :-.�n11..:lur� {Jnn�s 1 Cl 75:

P::-;1rs..:: t.'t a l . 1 97 7 ; S i rnen:-<t<ld ct al. J 978r!

tvla1.'rnal_giil dn1111 11Wil't.' ha:-; bt.'en indul'.i:d: in cora[ reef hah!lats hy lhi: e\\..:lu:-.1un 1d _:!ra1. 1 n g or�an1sin" {()i;d.-n

1976; Las.'>ay ! 9SO}. <UH.l hy k·n i l i:-a- r1on { Banner 1 9 7 4 ) . H a1..: hc.·1 dol'.t1111<.:nt,•d ;1n app:i1�·ntly :-:1:1hk· mnt:nial_gal

don1inat�J .shift frun1 th� 1nil'l"1lal.ga\\ don1inance Jut"; tu the disn1pti1in and lt.'lllp1ln1fy pol hHitin fl'.Sulcin� lr1in1

a .ship grounding and 1he d11 1nping of its t:argo of Pozz.a l i n . "

The n1echanisn1 for the precipitation of t h i s sl1ift i n stable state� 1nay be a1tribu1�d to the

Pozzal in spill temporari l y enhancing the growth of the bcnthic al gae' within the affected

zone by:

• a)

Exc\\\\lding grazer� dUL' to toxic, turbidity or increase-cl prcclat ion

effects (Dollar an<\\ Cirigg. 1 98 1 ) .

• b)

e C)

lncreasii;g the avai lab i l ity of poterttial l y li rn i ti ng n u t rienls ( K insey

and Davies 1 979, Hatcher and Larkum 1 983; Entsch et a l . 1 983b)

or fertilisation (Banner, 1 974).

Reducing Cl)lllpetition \\vi t h ot her benthic urgan i s1ns (e.g. coral ) by

inllil>iting their growth or ki l l ing them (Bak ct al . , 1 978; Dollar an�l

Grigg, 1 98 1 ).

• d)

.t\\ clearing and/or 1nodifying a Jar!!� area of [he substrata i n a

n1anner, or at a tiine \\Vhich favour�d colon isation by a fonnerly

3.3 Page 23

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rarl' algc1 ( ( i !ynn el al . \\ ()t14 : \\Valsh J 9SJ) .

Tile persistence of the crnn1111111ity af!er the perlurh,1t1011 \\\\';L'> lwc;-111st·:

I ) /\\ n1ac1Ylalg.a \\Vhicll had prl'.\\'i\\Hls!y ht•. cn consun1ed i rh:ide11 t;-1 l l y ( i . � . along 1,vi t l1 the

t u rfing tligal co 1 n n1un 1 t y in \\\\'h i t.·h it \\Vas cn1 bcckk�d) by !arge ht:rbivorous tish fee d i ng

non-selccti\\·ely ( i\\lu11 1�n111ery ·�1 a l . 1 98 1 ) bei.:.aine recogn i sable 1 0 l h c grazers. -rhe

algae \\\\.'as avoided due to i l "i rc!alive unpalatability (T".ucla 11nd Bryan 1 97 3 : Norris and

Fenical 1982) . This al lowed tl1c alg,1c to reach a size where bv it escaped srnalkr

predators and bc;ca111� n 1 o rl: unacceptable to t h e l a rger gra?L'r!-1 s i ?e related est.;ap� fro 1 1 1

preclation ( H a y 1 9 8 1 )

2) l'hc tnacroalga \\\\'(IS ahic tu i n h i b i t rile c:olo1 1 i:-:ai i o n o f (('.unnell and Slatyer 1 977, and/or

Olll CO!llj)Ctl' Slll<l l l L'r fl)flll.') f'nr pok'll \\ J; 1 J l y i i lll l ( l !lg rL'.'ilHl l\\.'t::-i ( e . g . l ig h t ) <i ul' to i t '.i

thal l u s 1norpho!ngy. \\\\1hich fonnr·d a n nvt..:rstory ( Li 1 t lcr ;·i nd L i u k�r l tJ80}.

J) /\\1icrngra7l:'r..; ttSl'd the n1acn)a!ga a..; sht:lt�r. ''nd fl..'.d 1..\\n pnlcntially cnrnp��ing

1rncroalgac ( LDlicl 1 9811; Brawky and /\\dey 1 9 8 ! \\l) . Tile t"ood -size ckpenclent

selec t i v i ty o!" grat.ers 111ay hl' pri 1 11ary i 111porta1H \\�'hc:rc prl!fcrence i s i nver;\\e!y related

hl lhallu:-. Size. as i i SL'r\\'\\�:-0 (I') ;\\ po.'i i t i vc fi;.'l�d back, fac i l i ta11ng shi fts rn.Hll !lliL·ro lo

rnacrnalga!-don1i natcd Ct>111nit1 n i t 1 L·�.

f-fatcher ( [ 984) dlSCtll!ll!Cd ! ill' h)'!h11hL'.\\ i .\\ o f LUi lh.'.idCl1L'l'. ('.yclOJll..'S rcpn.;Sl'lll another

clistu rh::ince \\i..rl1 i (:l1 doesn ' t g i v"-· ri�L' tn '.-.llt..'h ;i phenPnll�no n . 1\\..; \\vei l the poss i b i l i ty th;,ll the

perturbation i� l'.Oll l i n u i n g due \\O ! l 1 e SU�ta111ecl relt'<lSe or :'l{lflli.:.' l'hc.>111ical otht.'f' than those

lllL'8 SUred. ·rh i s a'isottat i on ( i r 1hc \\\\Tei.:k or i 1 s c;ir�n and tile 111acn)'1lgal ·do1 n i nati.d.:

co1n111unlty and is inaintaincd hy t h i s n:g.i1ne. It inc\\11c.h."'i the prl'S111np\\ion i hat thL� epl l i t h i c

algal COlllllllllli t)' \\Vi l ! rl'tUfll to till' 1nicro;1lgaJ-do1ni nafC'd :�tale fol ] O\\V)ng th(' lt'rJn i naliOll O f

thl' perturbat i o n , a:, ;;1 re:-. u l 1 o f pfly�ica\\ a! lril io11 o t 1 H l rl'coloni ...ation by better L'o11ipetilors

undt.::r conditions of i ntL'Ost_; g ra z i n g. . ·r111s poi n t h;ts hL'L'tl d 1 scoun tt'd �\\� t hl' Pnzta!in does n · L

contain n u trients \\rh 1 c ! i \\\\' 1 1 ! sl'lectively enhance tl1L· gnl\\vih o f ,1.\\jJrtl'{i,f.!JJ/iSt.\\· (Segot a11d

Coclomier. 1 98 1 ) 1wr arc' they toxi" I<> fi>il ( l loud(>ruff J cJ ) 7 ; !\\k kc'c' and Wnl l , 1%J). M llre

i tnportan tly, 111� in,�jor

...t i t u e n ! s uf bPth lht:.· l"argo and thl' h u l i {1.!.. g . i ro n ) . occur in

nx idi�ed stati.'.."> \\vh i c h are relatively 1 1 01 1 - rtaL·tiv� b i ologica l l y ( S t u 111111 and t\\·1organ , 1 970).

Ir is Hatcher' s L"llilll'.IHion 1/J;1( :-;oll\\l' ronlls o t' p o l l u t ion Oil ·

l'L'l"rs , \\Vhicll n1ny have

insig n i fieani i 1n 1 11ediate c frecl:-. 11101y have 1,,ign i ficanr long ll"rn1 \\e(·ondary L'ffect� on

co1nnn1t1ity :-.trlt..:tu n.� hy pn�cipi1;11ing 11 sh1 !"1 be\\\\\\·�cn ailernate stahlL· \\l;\\\\t'\\,

R E F E R E i\\ C E S :

B<1k RPl'vl 1 978. Letha! and suh!t·th<d efr1.·. L·L..; of drl·d�ing 011 cond t\\:'el\\. Afar. l,oll. !J11lf.

2:14-16.

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292: 1 77 .

Brod ie, J E and Ryan. P A ( 1 987) Environrnen1al 111011 i tori ng o f rhe ·rre;:l;-)Ure Island 111ari ne

SC\\\\'erage outfal l . F.nvir{1n1nen\\a! S1ud il's 1<.cport :'i6. l nst i l ulL of N11.t u ral RC"sou rces,

Univers·i t y or the South 1'<1c il"ic, S u v a .

C o n n e l l DW 1 97 1 . K e m"' n e - J i k e t a i n t i l\\g i n 1\\ ustral ian M u l le t . Mar. Poll. Bui!. p p ! 88- 1 89.

(�onnell J H , Sla!y\\.'.r R(J J Y77. f\\'lec h a n i s111 of .'iucce:,sion i n natur:il conu11u11itie... and thei r

role i n c(l111 n1uni ty s�a h i l i t y and nrg.an isat 1on . 11111. 1\\'ar. l ! l9- l l 4 4 .

Dahl. A L 1 97�. Surface area i n ecological analysis: Qua n t i fication 01" benthic coral-reef

algae. Mar. !liol. 2 3 :239-249.

IJollar, SJ <-�- C i rigg . R \\V 1 98 ! . l n1paer nr a kaolin clay spi l l on a cural reef i n Hr-1\\va i i .

Mor. Biol. 65: 269-276.

Entscil 13. Sim RU. H;Hchcr JJ(; 1 9X3b. Indications fro 111 pl101osyn t h c 1 1 c components 111"1 i ron

is a li111 i t ing nutrient i n pri 1 1 1ary prod ul·es oil coral reet':-.. i\\i/ar. lli1J/. 73: 1 7-JO.

(ilynn PVV. ,.\\. ! 111ocovar I .I < , C io111;:tlc1 J ( i J 964. l2ffect.'> of /1u rricane Edith on n1arine J i (e

i n La Parguera . Puerto Ritu. c·orih. .I. Sc·i. ..+:J35-J45 .

f-Iarcher, BCi / 9 8 2. . T h e i n tcr<tction hcl\\vecn grazi ng org:ani:-1n1s a n d the 1..�pi l i t h i c algal

co1nn1 unity of a coral ret�f; a quantitallve �1:-iscssn1e1H. l1/'uc. 411 Int. l'ot(f/ Re(:l.S>·11111. 2:516-

524.

J-farcher. HC3 ! 9X4 . t\\ 111arili11h:.' accident provide.'-. e,·ide-ncc for al t�rnalL' �!able state!:.: i n

ben1i1ic cornmllnities 011 rnral rc'ch. Com/ liccf< 2 : 1 99-204.

Ha1cher BG . Larkllil1 A\\V i l \\'l83 . .'\\n L'Xperimcntal analysi s of facwrs cont rolling the

standing crop or I lle epi l i t hit.: a l gal co n1 1nu n i ty on a coral reer. ./. Erp. 1i1ar. fliol. Eco/.

69: 6 1 -84 .

I-lay J\\1 E 1 9 8 i a . i·11� functional 1norphn!ogy or \\urt'-·rorn1ing :-;C<l\\\\"l..'.L�ds: pcrsis1cnct: i n

s l ressfu I marine h abi tats. l':rnlogr 6.1: 7 3 9 -750.

Kinsey, !')\\\\' lft.!. l )avil's. PJ 1 979. El'fecl:, l1f e l cva1ed ni trogen and pl10....plH1rou.\\ lll1 L'(>ral ri.•:. t:f

gro\\vtll .

(Jcea11ogr. 24, 9J5-�J40.

K ubenski. �r . 1 979. rf'ht' e!iain of CVt�ll[S in ciguatera (i�h poisoning,. S/1C F'islicries

,h/£•1vslcr1t•r, J 9 : 22-2 J .

Lassay D R 1 980. Hkcts 01· " fa r m i n g " bdiaviour ·by £11po11wc1'llf/"/1s firil/11.1· and

f1e1nglyp/Jitlodo1J plagio11u•101Jii!f Pll al g;d co111 11n111 i t y srructure. /Jul/. /vfur. Sl'i. JO:J04- 3 ! 2 .

Littler rvt f\\A, L i t tler J)S 1 980. 1-111.: evo ! u t i n n u r t11al l u s rorn1 ·.ind s u r v i val .S(f<l{t'git'S i n ht'IHhic

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n1ari ne 1nacroal gae : field and lahor;;1{l 1ry IC.st"' of a t'unctiona l ror innde\\. A111. .1\\r(i/. I 1 6: 25-44.

Lobel PS 1 980. f-{erhivory hy darnselfish and lht�ir role in coral reef C'(Hll rlllJ!li t y i;co!ogy.

!lull. Mar. Sci. .10:27:1-289.

Lovel l . r.R t98CJ. c:oral as�e1nhlat;.L�-� nf i\\1on�tnn Bay , Quee n s l a n d , 1\\u:-:.tralia. hel°l1n: and

after a 111ajor flood. i\\-fea1. (}<I 1\\'fus. �7{ 2 ) : 5J5-550.

Mann K H ( 1 98 2 ) . [col"gy o f coasial wakrs. lllackwel l . Ox t(ircl ( S t udie., i n ecol<1g y , vol.

8).

f'..·1 i.\\r�zal�k. l).S. 1 98 1 . Effects o f Sl'\\\\"age 1.•. f!lllL'll( Oil rc1�.. f cor;d.s. Proc 4th l i l t . c ·oral Reef

Symp. Manila. Philippines I : 2 1 3 .

f\\:larszalek, f )S 1 9�7. Se\\:1,'age and eutrophication. Htnnan \\ 1n pai.·t\\ on ('oral Reel\\: r=a(:tS and

Recon11Mnda1ions. B. Salvst Ed. i\\ 1cn1ie � ! us. E. l' . H . L. Frcnd1 Polyne,ia I S llN 2-9U'i6.\\().

06- X .

J\\1on1go1ncry \\V I . , Cierrntlt.::tte -r. t\\L1r�l1ali LI) 1 98 1 . Efft·1.·. ts o f graLing by tt1e giant b l ue

datnse!fi�h. A'l(crosporhodn11 dorso/is. lln algal co1nrn u n i tic..., in Ille C i u l f of C'al i fnrn i a .

Mexico. 1111/i. Mar. Sci. .\\0:290-.V U .

Norris J N and Fenical \\\\1 J CJ8 2 . C'hcn1ica! dei'l'llCt: i n tropi1·.. al 111arinc algae. I n : Rut1lcr K,

J\\·1acintyre l . (' . ·rhe 1\\- t l a n i i c Ba rri er Recr �cos.r.;,tt>111 at (�arric Bo\\V C'a y , Hi:!i?c I. Structun:!

and com m u n i ties. Smir/J.1011. Ci!l/11·. Mar. Sci. ! 2 :4 1 7-4:1 1 .

(Jgden JC' 1 970. Si.'. llh: a�p('Cl'i Df herbivore-plant rr.:.l a t i unships (111 ('aribbi.:an recf."i and

scagrass beds. /11111111. /101. 2: 10.1- 1 1 6.

S h i n n . E1\\ 1 976. (\\ir<ll n.:'c'f n:covcry i n Flori cla ancl l hl! Per."i1an ( i u !-f. l·.'n \\'. (j'col. \\ : 24 1 -� 5 4 .

S i r n k i <::s. K 1 96.+. Pho;.;pllates a::-i crystal poisPn:-i o t ' L:ak·i riL' a l i o n . l�iol. Rel'. J9, .+87-:'iO).

l�suda R�I' and Bryan H·r t97.1 . Fuod prefen.::nccs o f the ju\\·�ni li: Sigt111u1· ro.,1ra1us a n d 5;.

spi111111s i n Ciuam. Copeia 1 97.\\: (l(}4-60(>.

Walker. DI & Ormnntl. 1<1:< ; 1 98 2 . Coral death fn11n 'cWa),'c and pl1<"pl1ak pnl \\\\1tinn at

i\\qalla, Red Sea. Mar. /'ol/. ll11/I. I .I , 2 1 - 2 5 .

Walsh, \\VJ l lJ8J Stabi l i ty or a C(1ral reer C(lllllllilllity rolh)\\vin� a cata!-.lrnpllic �to n n . (.'orol

f(<'<:t�· 2:8.1-78.

\\.Vc l l ington , Ci iVf <-f:.:. Victor, BC' l lJ85. El N i no 1n<:1S\\ i.:oral 1norta\\ i l \\ : a 1e:-.1 of re..,ou rce

J i 1 1 1 i tatiOll i l l a COraJ (!.!Cf dtllllSC!fislJ popu l a t i o n . ()('CiJh1gfrt f1(J, 1 5 - J LJ .

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A PPENDIX 2

·rhe purpose of i nc l u d i n g a description of c i g uatera poisoning i s tl1'1t t h e rathog.e n , cl algal

flagellate proto7"oan , has been identi fied fror11 the ()valau harr.1er rr.': l'f systcni. ·rJ1\\:' 111icnJ

hahirat in \\vh ich the toxic (;an1hl1riudi.rcus occu rs i n i ts ben !l1 ic for i n . i s \\\\' i t h i n the fol iage

of n1acroa1gaes such as the Sr11:�a.\\·su111 \\vhicl1 co111prist::s ! lie algae discussed . ·r11e ri.sk

re1nai n s un t:ertai n \\Vithoul further a!-ist>ss1ne11t of the presence of the Gan1heriodiscus in tile

n1acroalgae find the bio;;1ssay of the tisl1 l i k c l y lo be effected .

TIIE lNCl!)ENC!c O F CIGllATERA l'OISON l '.'\\ G

C�ig,u�tera poisoni ng: i') ;-\\ signi fi1.:anl p u h l i c hc:alth prohlern i n t h e Pacific. Fij i , according to

South Pacific Commission reports of 1 99 1 , llad the highest n u mber of cases reponecl in the

Pacific with 1 . 207. Tiley were second 10 Kiribati with l . l 'i9 ca"'·' i n 1 1)92. In real i ty there

are probably 111.any r11ore that go u n reponcd. Thnu�h de;:1 th� frorn ."i11ch poison i n g are r'1re,

tile i l l ness c<U' inani fesl �'!.:'\\·ere sy1np1oir1:-; and tht: recovery i.\\ _-;hn1,. .

('.ig,uatera pui:-:.nning. rc..:.ult� fro1n �<lting_

fi;..\\) that h<l\\"t� prt?vious\\y COILSU!l1ec\\ !OX.IC

cpiphytic d i no llagel latc:s or rrorn t-at i ng pn.;·d::ltor� l)f 1h0:-.e reef ri s h . 'fhere are several Lypes

of fish poi;.;nning. in additH111 lo cig.ua1er1.1. ·rhest'. include c/11peoid poisoning \\sardines.

anchovies or herring) \\Vhit.:h are planl\\ton fl'cders and ingesr tile 10.x i n fro1r1 reed i ng on t h e

phytoplan kton . rvt u l lC't an:.' herbivtH·ous. \\vhic!l 10 a {�sser extend feed on t h e plankton ancl

drif! algnc occ<:Js1on<tl l y c x h i l?iting 11n1//et poiso11i11,I{. 7'etrodon poisonin� i!'. the re.su i t of a

tox i n characteri� 1 i c o f the group \\Vhic.h i ncl ude the pu rfer fi�h . t1.r,1d ris!1 and irigger fi:-,h .

�·co111hroirf 1Joiso11i11g i n volves tile tunas and r n ackcrel and i s !/Je resu l t of an al lergy nr

ll istan i i ne reaction to the fish by o.,oini.: individual�. S!tef(/"h;/1 JH>isoning i s tile result or

cnnct:"n t ra t i n g tox i n .-; pre�ent in the plan J.. ton . (;rah 11oiso11i11.� i::. con fin ed to the Xanthid (non

�\\Vi 111111ing) ret-f crnhs and 111ay he the r1.·. sult l1f the ciguatera produl'.'ing algacs <ts \\\\'ell as

other toxic SJ1l'Cies. C.'a11ned ji"slz poiso11h1ft i s t h e result o f hactl'ria! cont<1111 i n (ltion i n the

cri n n i n g procC\\) resu l t i n g i n !he \\\\'ors[ i l l «lance i n �1 l i l'e tlin:�1 t � n i ng. i \\ ! n('..:-,� lik..;: l}lllltli�nl.

·r11e incidence o f I l l � \\·arious pnisnnings :ire a'i fol loi,\\'S: ('1guatcra 90Y'o ; ('.\\upeotoxi:-.111 4 1Ji

{c!aniva and other �ard i nes ) : l'e1n1clotox isn1 . S I/(, (pu rti:.�r li ::i h ) : ('rah poi�on i11g . s c;;; ; Shel l fish

poisoning J o/r1 ; Sco1nbrotoxis111 I �'1.. ( t u nas) : i\\:f u l !e t poison i n g. "2 1:f : ()eepsca fish gnnad and

l i ver p0iso11 i n g .5 % : Canned fish pni �on i ng . 5 o/c-. .

Tile n u 1nher of fatal ca,e:'-i fron1 ! h t' i.'.(11l:-.1n11 p t i o11 o ( inarine food..; i n Fij i . i n rL'Ct:nt yl'ars

( 1 95 5 - 1 98.1) is: Cigua!L't"' I : C l u pe11t11xism 'J ; Tl'trodntoxisrn 2 : Crab P<l i so n i n � 2: Shel l rish

poison i ng ! : C'nnnccl li"ill poi�on ing 2 .

Tile n1icro�copic d i n o tlagellate a lga�' (Ja111hicrdi.,c11.\\ 10.ricus is tile ::.uurce o f ciguatnxln i n to

t he fond chai n , leading to fish poi :\\Pn i ng in hulllitrls. �rhe d i nnflagc l lates attach t h e 111scl res

to th� brancl1es ancl t h all us of 1narinc algae a n d :.ire l11e11 p�1.<:;sed up the food ch ai n hy hei11g

con�uint::d by herbivorous fish, \\\\1hicil a rc then con suined by carni vnr(lt t s !ish . H u 111an-.. are

j1nisonc:d after con<.;u111p1ion of eithc•r t ype� of toxic fi'.-> h .

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(�uriously not a l l str'1in� o r the (hu11hienf;.,c1t,. p rodHcc th"'' toxin 1naking sl1nplt: counts of tht

d i noflagel iate population as i ndicr 11 ion s of tilt� risk less usc(ul.

(:iguatoxin is one of' tile 1110."il potent and :-.tal;k� 111arine tox i n s k1Hnvn. I t is resi stant to heat

rind cannot be de:-.;1 rnycd hv cook i n � or freezi n �.. C,iguatoxin do not �titer l/1c �111cl l . tasrt or

� ; l � coloration of tl1c to�i c fi. h rl:-;<:.uc . 1\\s \\vei as i the rnu.<:.c:ular tissues. tilt� cig11atoxin

concentra\\t?s i n the l i ve r . \\'iscera. prgans, r\\k� and head. The fi�h, fe�l:-; no ii! e ffi.>..:lS t'roin

the fox i n . �rh1.�: highL'.r ! h i..' fish arc i n the food chain th� inure conr.:e n t ratcd \\� th\\! h.'Xin in

tl1eir tissut'S and the r non.:' �'i:.·\\·ere tile "i}'lllptorn fro111 t•a i i n g .

The 111:�jority of fish i rnp1 i c;1tl'cl arc t h e carni vorous fishc-" \\.\\'i ! h t h e larger t h e sir.�. the greater

lhe risk. Herbivnrous ii:-.h arc: i 1 1tluded i n a li�t of l i kely .affected groups: groupers; rock

cod; 111ullets; parrot fish ; trigger lish: .:-.u rgeon fish \\v ra:-i:-:es: c1nperor fi'.'!!h : barracuda:-.;

:-;nappers: 1noray ct:l."i: t f('\\' a l ! ics.

TIIE RISK

Fo\\kl\\\\'ing is a rir\\l k�VL'I ;J\\'iC!-IS!l!l'llt l l f t h e l i k L·lihnod nf <ill JllC fl','t''iL: I l l {/le i n c idence·. of

cigualera as thie rl's1.tl\\ of thi: increased a\\�a\\ cover nn Ralavu Reef. ,.\\ s\\L:.":oSllll'Il! nf till' risk

i s based on the (o/ lo\\.v i ng factors: rile k no\\vn prl'sencc of ci guatera po1:-.rn1 i n g : lhe seasonal

period in \\Vlli(.'h l h L� tilgae is l i kely 10 he llHJ'"i! proli li-:·; lhe ecoh)gy of the pathogen: tilt: n atu re

of tl1e d i s t u rbance and i t \\ perceived eft"cct pron1nti ng tl1c toxic :algal devclopn1\\.:'n t : and the

presence or local fi:..h liable lo the po i soning .

·rile qoa! itat i ve as.'ie:-.sn1er11 of tllc risk ·i s t'ased on n:cognising t he presence ot' factor\\ \\vllic!1

1nay proinote ! h L' develop111cnr of th� toxil· a!g.�\\l' ;.:i.nd \\�,\\\\·e ron\\rihuh.·d lo ou\\hrL�aks of the

d i sease elst.::\\·\\·l11:n.:.

-•--P--r~(''.~\\('1'l_lC··<'~,~·ig.1..nJI<' l't I Jmi.,·m!in_::.;_ Fij i /1a� C\\.i!lccti\\·cly a high Jc,·121 of ciguatcra

poisoning ( S P ( � 1 993), hut t h i s is of ! i t 1 / e p;ir11ctilar corh.:crn <.!.\\ th� island cnvi 1'l>n n1e11ts

arc so varied and Cl)\\ l,'. f -.;uch a largL' arL'a. ;\\fnre local l y , san1plc'\\ taken near ()valau

contained cig uatcra toxin { 't'a\\un1nto 1 9 8 1 ) . �fll is gave rt:'ason for the cau 1 ion i ng of the

co11sun1ption o( ( )gu (.\\°{Jhyrocna [>icudo) and J )a1nu (f,1triu11u.\\ holu1 r). ('ontrary lo th1:-.

is th� an ecdotal i n fonnation thal there is very l ic t l i.: fish poisoning al the adjacent island

of Naigan i . ·rhe l)atrtll \\Vh i c h arc

c\\S�\\Vhcre are no\\ t'o11nd to he toxic. rrh i s

1nay he due 10 the islancl� prox i 1 n i ty to tilt' rnain!and .and tl1e pl·riodic frcsl1 \\\\'ater

; n n uencc of the inainl<ln d .

.s Tl]L.\\t'asmwl Jll'riot! ur \\1'/1ic/J 11me_ 1/~11in~(··-i-<~ll'IU·e

1/1e

·1·1ie

annual peak in ciguc1tt'n1 poist1n i n g is Nove111her/I >ece111her in the Sout!1 Pacific (F�agnis

1 97J). '!'he SPC: fig u res for J �)�) ! ,111d ! 99_; clo1 1 ' ! n.:!ll'L'l t h i :-. \\Vi t/l Ol'CtllTL'llCl"S in every

n1onth \\vi t/1 sevL'r"<ll n o n - � u 111111('r :'\\..::a:-i.on 111onths \\Vith high \\'a\\ue'.'-i ( S P ( ' \\ 9�F.1i ) . .i\\':> the

algal rnat on Ha!�I\\'H rt'L'f h;1s persisted (or l!lree )''\\.'. ars, �t.:a\\onality i s no( a factor and

n1ay rcin!'orced t!li.:.·. '.'.Un1u!a�ivl'. t•.ffi.'..C\\ of the toxin in tlle food clir1 1 n .

•

II1u

er{uIi.\\<.'I1s 111J)J_-.m.;. -rh e na tu r·;iJ

habitat is gent:ra l l y con'ii tlen:·ll 111.; !'orL' n:"l:.'f slope \\\\'itll an env1 ron r nent \\vhich ha:-.

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rnoderate \\Vave action . They pre fer <.1 reas \\vhcr� l fiere i!-i son1t� \\vave acti()J1 \\Vbich n1ay

he due to t h e presence of a 1n ucou s shca!ll \\vhicll i 1npedes nutrient t ra11..,port \\vith out

agitat ion. Ka!y C\\nd Jones 1 990. ho\\\\'ever. found large n u 111bcrs o f tile tox ic algae on

tile reef tlat i n Niu1ao. Tuvalu.

Le)\\\\' sal i n i t y and strong light intensity deler the gro\\\\!th �)f (i. 1oxic11s { 'r'a�un1u10 l'.'t a l .

1 980). The rt�su l t s e x p l a i n 1.vhy Ci. ro.rh·us i 'i n o t abundant near t he inouth of rivers pr

i n shallov.· lngoons \\Vi t h h rigll t ;;,1n dy hntro1n�.

• _T_he_1_111r_ufD.!l 1/J(' (/isl1rrhall(LJlll<[_its /)en·e iJ.'~ ('d 't'C l 011 tmn/frifi11.LliI~tU.!'r... !!lY.111

{ll'\\'rfl!J)m1•n1: lni::rl'aSl'"' in cig uarcra poi:-;oning have been attributed to hutnan

disturbance 011 the COraJ rt>ef \\Vl1icl1 a rfect ! he lli ologicaJ tlatttre O f th� reef ((:ooper.

1964; de sylva and H ine. 1 972 ; Tebano . 1 984; Nauglllon. J 985 ) . A l tera1 ion to the reel'

through dn:dging and the construction of cauSC\\vays. I n !'v1arakei Island , in Kiribati .

ciguatcra Ila:.; hccorne con111HHl \\Vi lh tl1e a l t er;ition 11f the natural 1ag�1011 ci rcu l ai i nn du�

to C<l!.ISC\\Vay Cl1r1 Struction. ' ( 'oral fr;igrnents tnay pro\\·ide llt:�\\V :'itt rfaces l"nr algal

settle111ent. ll has bc�n !'ound that cora\\ d?irnag.I.": and dr('dging 1nay t rigger the onset o f

ci gua1era tlsh poiso n i ng (Tel1'll10. 1 984b; Tcb;lllo a n d McCan h y . 1 99 1 J . Tl1is lypc o f

poison i ng \\Vas 1)(lt kno\\vn i n J\\-lainana f 1 I ! after a chctn11el \\\\'a:-, const ructed a t t h e \\Vestern

sicle nf the island . ()n the isl ands o f 1\\lar<\\kei �\\nd Nikunau \\Vhere cigHatera fish

poi::.Dni ng i::. a d a i l y tale. t h i !> got \\Vorse and even �prcad o u l 10 the nL'ighhouring

vil lag0s· rrehann, } 990).

Kaly .and Jones ( 1 990) provide a n.!\\' IL'\\V or the c.: i n.:11111 :-itanccs \\Vh ic.:/J give ri se to fi:;h

pt1\\ so n i n g .

" Bagnrs ( 1 969) (ci led in Ban ner. 1 970) reporicd the appl'arancc ol' 1oxic fotws

w i t h i n 1 ..5-2 years \\vhcn the atol l of H·�10 ('l'uan1otus) \\V�\\S c o nverted lo <1 n u c l ear

stagi ng h<tsl: i n 1 9(1) by the French . Rei:f aµpar\\·. n t i y beca 111c to:\\1 i.:. i n a paltcrn

:-ipreading out froin th� cen t re t)f cli.:-.turliance, first appearing I n herbivorou� fish

and later tllL' c<1 n 1 i \\·n1\\::-.. So1 n l' \\.Vork('r have iden t i fied blasting for \\he

l'.011Sl rti('tion of boat ChctllJJL'!S (l) a proba[)k• l"(lllSL' for iill increase lll fish

poi�on i ng. ( e . g. . Kuben�k i , 1 971.J: 'ft'.bc1no , 1 984 ) . ()lher -;Ji s t u rbances have also

Ileen i 111pl icat�d in fi.)ll poisoning. such t-1'-i : storn1 ( l�;.1 g n i .'> . ! 979: ·t'i:hann, 1 984 ) :

diehacK o f coral:s { Yast1111nto e t a l . 1 980a , h ) a n d any nth�r fnrn1 of clistu rbnnc�

(\\Vit !1 �rs. ! 9�2: 'Yas111noto Ct al . , 1984). \\Vhcn i1Hervh.�\\VCd, tlle people of

K i ribati nssociatecl a re�1s of lox icity \\\\· i t h shi p \\\\.·re..:k�. bo n1 l1 i ng ( \\\\'\\V I I ) . se\\vage.

rubhi:sh d u n 1 p i n g, ·and n1any other rorn1s o !' disturbance {C'ooper. 1 964: ·rt>bano.

1 984: McC'a n h y and ·rcllano. 1 984 ) . McCarthy and Td>ano ( 1 9 84) pnin\\ed oul,

ho\\Vc\\·er that !he apparen t �1s�ociatinn bet\\vecn \\vrecks and ciguatera i n K i ribal i .

derived by intervi e\\\\:ing fi.'iherinen. r11 !g!J t have ari sen because \\Vrl'cks (and

presun1::1bly other l 1 u rnan st rul't 11 rt>s) provide a cunvenient sp;-1!ia! and tl.'.:nlpl)fal

1n<trk1.·r t'or an u1Jieri.v 1�c nl)SCll n.'. pln�nonH!non. ··

A mechanism for 1 t1e l i n k w111l d i s 1 11rha11ce ""' n r ,1 pwpo,ed by l< andal l ( 1 95 8 ) .

I-le sugge.'>lt'd t h a t t h e 1ox1L:i\\y i n fi.sll v.·as caused l1y a n a l � a \\vllicli \\Vas the rir:-.t

to grO\\\\ o n ne\\V subslrata. \\\\!reek�. rubbish, e\\C. all provide ne\\V .'\\Uh.•ara!a,

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either i n tlle1n <:-elve..., t)r l)y dt:':� l royi ng coral �. L.ater, '(asun1010 ( ! 977a.h)

a!tribu1ccl poisoni ng. to a d i n n f!age!!ate Ch1111hit·nlisc11s !tJ.ricu.'i \\vhicll l i vecl under

tl1e .lillri"ace !llUl'(lll'i. 1�1yer or ;:dgat.:. eaten by (i'-ili ( Yasuin(lto._ 1 97 9 , ! 9�0a , l i :

Bag.n i s c l a l . 1 980). ·rhe ''ho�t" algae carrying t h e lnxic dinoflage!late have

inc \\ ud�d n.:d. grcl"n and bnJ\\\\:n fo11 ns ( l!Jough not tu n le grass, or n1ucll on sand)

\\Vi t ll fine:ly b ranch i ng l°onns ha rbouri ng lht� greatest nu n1bers of cel\\:'-1 ( S h i n11zu

et a l . , 1 982: llal l ant i ne et al . . 1 9�5: Taylor, 1 985 . ) .

The. study by Kal y and Jones ( t 990) wilcn considering the cft'cct n r l1 u 111an i n fluence on

the ciguatera outh1\\.'ak in at N J t!lao. l�u,·;:-t l u concl uded rhat it hJd 110 di rect e ffect (lll the

d istri b ut ion of the 1oxic ;il!!<tl�.

Due to C'tHl :->iderat ion� (I( the hiolog_y u( (Ja1nhicrdixcHs inv(1!ving displ.!r:-.al . grnv.-·tll and

accu 11 1 u latin11 in t ile rood chai n , there i :- a l;1g t i 111e for clis1 urb1u1ce to r11a n i fe.'t it..e. ! f a.\\

cigua1cra. St�vcral aL·coun ts indicatt.: th;Jt t ll i s i s genera l ly conslder1..·d 1 0 ht! 1 2 IP ! X

1no1llh� bu! 111ay occur in le�s than a y�ar.

Jn S U B \\ lllary, tlJe d i noJ1 ;1gc>JLtiL' (;an1h1erudi.\\CI(.\\ has hL:Cn d�scrih.::d fronl the b<1rrier

n:.('.fs surroundi n g {)valau. �fhe \\\\· l1olesale colonisation of nort hern Haiavu Reef by a

dense carpe� or 1he 111acroalga1.:: create a si t ua i ion conduciv..: to conditions \\Vhich \\\\'ou\\d

al !o\\V for its popu lation grll\\V t h . ·r11 i s i;, tht: ci rcun1'.).tance req u i rt�cl for ciguatox i n 10 be

introduced i n t o the fond chai n . :\\s a resu l 1 , sn1n� fish cnnsun1ed fro1n t11 i s a rea 111ay

res u l t in fish poisoning. 'fht: '.\\ituatiun \\\\' i i ! be acerlKl\\t.'.d i i' the potent ial is real i sed

rc:st1lti11g in a si 111 i lar al teration of the adjacent J .ekaleka Reef due 1 0 the p roxi 1n i ty of

the second out fa l l .

A t th is stage the pr�sence nf ciguat L�ra poi son i n g attributable ltl t h i s. an:a \\10s ni.\\\\ hci.::n

reported . �rl1e potential !(H· i t� {11.�cu rrence is desc ri bed i n t h i s report �o Lhat the

co11sequenc.:es of 111an- intl uc..:i:d �11,, i ro111ne11t�11 cl1:111ge-; !-ill1)L1 ld he carefu l l y i nvestigated

prior to undertaking engi neering options \\\\'hii.:. !1 1nay h<-1\\"(' unde:,.irabiL' long tl'l"lll

(:11 viron1nenta1 t:onsetJ \\tl·Jlcl·� .

REFERENCES:

Bagnis. R . 1 9 7 3 . Fish Poisoning i n lhe South Pacific. South Paci fic c : o n 1 1 11i'.'lsion ( U S P

Cl)!\\. 6 1 8 . 7 . y.1 ) .

C'.ouper, i\\·1 . .I. J 964. c-:iguatera <UH! olhl:.'r 1narine ppi son i ng i n tile ( i i l 1 1ert !:-.!and�.

Paci l"ic Science. 1 8 , 4 1 1 -440.

de .Sylva. [) . P . cind I-li ne 1\\ . E. ! 9 7 � . C'iguah.::r�t - (\\.1 a ri ne rt\\h put\\011111� - t1 pos:-.ihh.'.

l'OllSl.'q LJCJ\\l'e or (/1er1nal p u ! l u t !U!l i n 'J'ropiL'al ).t•as? In R u i voo (L"d) i\\1ari nL' po l l ution and

sea J i rl� . .F!shing Ni.:\\\\'.' hook I..td. J>p. SLJ4-5�7.

Kaly, lf . I.. and JOllL':-.. ( i . l ' . 1 990. ·r11c (:on-;trucrion n r Hoa! ( 'l1;1rJrh:ls /\\cross (:oral

Reefs: Final Repon ( N o . 4 1 An 1\\ssl'S'illl'llt of l:cological i m pact nf Red ( 'h;111nds i n

the South P�v.:ific . Pr..:parcd f\\)t' Ne\\\\' Zea1�n1d tvl i n i�try o f Extern'tl Relat1011s and

3.10 Page 30

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Trade.

Ka!y, lJ . L. and Jon�:-.. ( i . P . ! 990. (iuid1.:'l ines for tll� con:-.1n11.:ti<111 o ( bo�H cl1cu1nc!s 011

c :oral Reers. l n funnation c1 ri;:ltl;.1r prepared for ht.' N�\\V 7.ealand !'vl i n istry of exrernal

Relations and 'frade .

K ubensk i , T . 1 979. The chain n!" evc111s i n r.::igua1cra fi:"h poi �oni n g. SP('. Fi51leries

Nev,,slelter, 1 9 . 22-2 3 .

l\\1cC'arthy f). and ·rehano, �r. ! 984 . C'.1gu:.H\\.'ra fish poisoning a n d causat-ivt! organisn1

i n the Ci i l hcrt Islands. K i ri bati . Rcpor\\: Atoll research and deve1opme1H u n i t .

University of th,, South l'aciric.

Naughton . .I . 1 985 . Blast !1 s h i n g in the· P<1citic. SP(' of F i sheries Newsletter. 3 3 . I I>·

20.

S P (� (�iguatcra l n ron11at1nn B u l l t>t i n 1 99 1 . Bul let i n no:-.. I . Fi�IH:>ri�s l n fDrination

Project. SPC.

(USP col l . PAC PER R A 1 24 2 . F56C'.)4 No. I 1 99 1 . ) .

SPC' Ciguatera l n forn1ation B u l le t i n ( ! 90 2 ) . Bu! leon no. .,

Project, SPC.

( U S P col l . P A C PER l< A 1 24 2 . F56C54 N o . I J 99 1 . J .

Fi sllerie� l n to" nnation

S P(� Cigualera l n frlnnatinn Bu l leti n ( 1 993). B u l letin no. 3 . fi�herie\\ l n fonnatio11

Project. SPC.

· ( U S P col l . 1'1\\C PER !<A l '.'4 � . F56C54 No. I 1 99 1 . ) .

l'ebano. rr. 198-L Population den'.'.ity study Oil a toxic d i nollagcllate rcsponslhle for

ciguatcra fi..:;h poisoning Oil South ·rannva r\\ tol l . l<�ruhlic ur K i ribati.

l'ebano, r�- . l l..)lJ \\ . l s i t develop1lll'llt (lr de::itructiun'! l n1 pact or plly�ical innovations o n

atol l � . il\\o\\ogical and Cl'()logical i 11 1 p l i...·atinn.\\. I n st i t ll te or 1\\fari11e l�C\\OllTCes; ·r1ie

lJn\\versity of ihe P<1 c i fi c .

·rebano, rr. ! 99 2 . c:igua1era poisoning Clt1(! reef cli.)ttJrbancc Ill So11til · rara\\\\'(l, K i ri h a t i .

i\\to!l l<.escarch P rogra1r1 . · 1 ·arr\\\\va, K i riba t i . SP(' c:iguatcra l n !"onn a t i u n B n l l c t i n ( ! 99 2 ) .

Bulletin n o . 2 . Fisheries l n fnrn1atic1n Project , S P C .

( USP col l . !'AC !'ER R A 1 241 . f756C54 N o. I 1 99 1 . J .

\\Villlt'r.�, 1 982. C'ig.ualera fish poisoning . :\\nn. Re:,·. lvle.ct.,_. J.l. 97- 1 1 1 .

Yasu1nnto. ·r. ! 980. t : i � h . S!1t•!! !'ish and ('r<.\\b Poison i ng i n F ij i . lnsti t ule o f tvlarinc

Resuurcl's; �1 ·11._� lJ n i \\·l'r."ii i y of tht'. S{1ut\\1 Paci fil·. (l!SP cul l . C)L (1 1 8 . 7 . y .1 ) .

YaMunoto. T. , F uj i 11w. K . , O s h i t n a , Y . , Inoue, A . , Oclli , T . . i\\tlachi, R . , F u k u y o . Y .

and Bagnis. R . : " l�cnlogical and dlstrihutional studic'.-1 01) ;: 1 toxic d i n o tlagt:llate

4 Pages 31-40

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4.1 Page 31

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n.�spu111;,ib!e l{lr ciguatera. Rl'fHirt to thL' Japan r\\"l i n i stry n1· Education , l'(lkyo. 1 980.

l\\ dachi, I{. , Fukuy(1, Y. ancl Bag n i s . !< . : r:.cologica! and c!istribu\\ional \\ludies on a loxic

dinoflagell�tlC' rt:Sj)OIJ;)il)lt' for i..: i�uall:ra. Rcpnn 10 tile Japan {V1 i n i stry or Education.

Tokyo, 1 '!80.

Bagni�. R. 1 97\\J. r)(l!lt'L'.'i n.�L'c'll/�\\ r�lati \\''=.''\\ ;1 L:l l'. igu;-11e-ra dans lcs i\\ l l t i l k.'.'I , c�a1-:;i(hes

rvluL 2 . JU.

88.nner. 1\\ . l-I . I Y7b. f'igua!t'ra: /\\ d i s1:.·ase r'n.Hn cort1l ·f·!' ri�h. I n :

and

3, 1 77-� L�.

Raj . l iday ! 9 K�� . l'ht.: OCCllJTt'lll'L' {lf paraly! it; she l l ri:-.h toxins in \\\\\\·o species or Xan1l1id

(:rah fro111 Suva Barrier R�\\.'f. Fiji J :.;\\cintls. ·rox i�:nn \\.'o! . ·:? ! no . .:!. .

Raj , l ld<i y , Bagnis.. R . 'YasuinntP ,'r, Seafood Poisoning.. in ·rropi..::a! Regions. Tokol1u

lJnivcrsity, t\\1iyaq i . Japan. Sy1npo tHl S�af\\'}Od ·ruxins in �J'ropicc1I H.cgions. Kango:-.!iiina

U n i v . 1 88.1 .

(liSP cnll.

l> I X . 7

y )7 1 . .

l't-t�ll\\HO\\O, R�tj , l l , and Hagn;,\\, I< . I LJX 4 . s�afuud pni�llning� i n tropical n:gion:...

l�lli) rt : Lath.H. 'atorv •,Ji' fond h 'l iL'nc faL·u l 1 ,-\\�ricu /I u re. �rullnku l I n 1\\

( l J:-> P col l .

Q L 6 1 8. 7 . y.17).